Pathogen removal in constructed wetlands

Wetlands Ecology Conservation and Restoration

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 178-211

  Weber, Kela P ^a   Legge, Raymond L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77957994008     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (129)

1. Aelion C.M., Bradley P.M. (1991) Aerobic biodegradation potential of subsurface microorganisms from a jet fuel-contaminated aquifer. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 57, 57-63.
2. Amman, R.I, Ludwig, W., Schleifer, K.H. (1995) Phylogenetic identification and in-situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbial Reviews. 59:1, 143-169.
3. Anderson, B.C., Watt, W.E., Marsalek, J., Crowder, A.A. (1996) Integrated urban stormwater quality management: field investigations at a best management facility. Canadian Water Resources Journal. 21, 165-182.
4. Batty, L. Baker, A. Wheeler, B., Curtis, C. (2000) The effect of pH and plaque on the uptake of Cu and Mn in Phragmites australis. Annals of Botany. 26, 647-653.
5. Bitton, G. 1980. Adsorption of viruses to surfaces: Technological and ecological implications. pages 331-374 in G. Bitton and K.C. Marshall (eds.) Adsorption of microorganisms to surfaces. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
6. Borisko, J.P., Slawson, R. M., and Warner, B.G. (2000) An examination of Escherichia coli removal by an alternative wetland-based wastewater treatment system: Preliminary findings, Canadian Society for Civil Engineering 2000 Conference Proceedings, London, Ontario, 523-529.
7. Brix, H. (1997) Do macrophytes play a role in constructed treatment wetlands?. Water Science and Technology. 35, 11-17.
8. Brix, H., Arias, C.A., Cabello, A., Johansen, N.H. (2003) Removal of indicator bacteria from municipal wastewater in an experimental two-stage vertical flow constructed wetland system. Water Science and Technology. 48:5, 35-41.
9. Broadbent, P., Bakker, K.F., Waterworth, Y. (1971) Bacteria and actinomycetes antagonistic to fungal root pathogens in Australian soils. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 24, 925-944.
10. Brock, Th., Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M., Parker, J. (1994) Biology of Microorganisms. Prentice-Hall International, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
11. Burgoon, P. S., Kadlec, R. H., Henderson, M. (1999) Treatment of potato processing wastewater with engineered natural systems. Water Science and Technology. 40, 211-215.
12. Clausen, E.M., Green, B.L., Litsky, W. (1977) Fecal Streptococci: Indicators of Pollution. pages 247-264 in A.W. Hoadley and B.J. Dutka (eds.) Bacterial Indicators/Health Hazards Associated with Water. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
13. Cronk, J. K. (1996) Constructed wetlands to treat wastewater from dairy and swine operations: A review. Agriculture. 58, 97-114.
14. Cullimore, R.D. (2000) Practical atlas for bacterial identification, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
15. Curds, C.R. (1992) Protozoa and the water industry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
16. Decamp, O., Warren, A. (1998) Bacterivory in ciliates isolated from constructed wetlands (reed beds) used for wastewater treatment. Water Research. 32:7, 1989-1996.
17. Desena, M. (1999) Constructed wetlands provide cost-effective treatment for Florida town. Water, Environment and Technology. 11, 38-39.
18. Diemont, A.W. (2006) Mosquito larvae density and pollutant removal in tropical wetland treatment systems in Honduras. Environment International. 32, 332 - 341.
19. Dufour, A.P. (1977) Escherichia coli. the fecal coliform. pages 48-58 in A.W. Hoadley and B.J. Dutka (Eds.) Bacterial Indicators/Health Hazards Associated with Water. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
20. Duineveld, B.M., Kowalchuk, G.A., Keijzer, A., van Elsas, J., van Veen, J. (2001) Analysis of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere of Chrysanthemum via Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis of PCR-amplified 16S rRNA as well as DNA fragments coding for 16S rRNA. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67:1, 190-197.
21. Dunbar, J., Ticknor, L.O., Kuske, C.R. (2001) Phylogenetic specificity and reproducibility and new method for analysis of terminal restriction fragment profiles of 16s rRNA genes from bacterial communities. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67:1, 190-197.
22. Dusel, C.J., Pawlewski, C.W. (1997) Constructed wetlands offer flexibility. Land and Water. 41, 27-28.
23. Fayer, R., Morgan, U. M., Upton, S. J. (2000) Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: Transmission, detection, and identification. International Journal for Parasitology. 30, 1305-1322.
24. Ferris, M.J., Muyzer, G., Ward, D.M. (1996) Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis profiles of 16S rRNA-defined populations inhabiting hot spring microbial mat community. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 61:2, 340-346.
25. Flores, H.E., Vivanco, J.M., Loyola-Vargas, V.M. (1999) "Radicle" biochemistry: the biology of root-specific metabolism. Trends Plant Sci. 4, 220-226.
26. Frostman, T.M. (1996) Constructed wetlands for water quality improvement. Land and Water. 40, 14-17.
27. Garcia, J., Vivar, J., Aromir, M., Mujeriego,R. (2003) Role of hydraulic retention time and granular medium in microbial removal in tertiary treatment reed beds. Water Research. 37:11, 2645-2653.
28. Garland, J.L. (1997) Analysis and interpretation of community-level physiological profiles in microbial ecology. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 24, 289-300.
29. Garland, J.L., Mills, A.L. (1991) Classification and characterization of heterotrophic microbial communities on the basis of patterns of community-level sole-carbon-source utilization. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 57, 2351-2359.
30. Gerba, C.P., Nokes, R., Karpisack, M. (2000) Reduction of enteric microorganisms through small scale subsurface flow constructed wetlands, Technology Expo and International Symposium on Small Drinking Water and Wastewater Systems, Phoenix, AZ (USA).
31. Gerba, C.P., Thurston, J.A., Falabi, J.A., Watt, P.M., Karpiscak, M.M. (1999) Optimization of artificial wetland design for removal of indicator microorganisms and pathogenic protozoa. Water Science and Technology. 40, 363-368.
32. Gersberg, R.M., Brenner, R., Lyon, S.R., Elkins, B.V. (1987) Survival of bacteria and viruses in municipal wastewaters applied to artificial wetlands. in K.R. Reddy and W.H. Smith (Eds.), Aquatic plants for waste treatment and resource recovery. Orlando: Magnolia Publishing.
33. Gopal, B., Goel, U. (1993) Competition and allelopathy in aquatic plant communities. Botanical Review. 59, 155-210.
34. Green, M.B., Griffin, P., Seabridge, J.K., Dhobie, D. (1997) Removal of bacteria in subsurface flow wetlands. Water Science and Technology. 35:5, 109-116.
35. Hallberg, K.B., Johnson, D.B. (2005) Microbiology of a wetland ecosystem constructed to remediate mine drainage from a heavy metal mine. Science of the Total Environment. 338, 53-66.
36. Hench, K.R., Bissonnette, G.K., Sexstone, A.J., Coleman, J.G., Garbutt, K., Skousen, J.G. (2003) Fate of physical, chemical, and microbial contaminants in domestic wastewater following treatment by small constructed wetlands. Water Research. 37:4, 921-927.
37. Hill, V.R., Sobsey, M.D. (2001) Removal of Salmonella and microbial indicators in constructed wetlands treating swine wastewater. Water Science and Technology. 44:11-12, 215-222.
38. Jagger, J. (1983) Physiological effects of near ultraviolet radiation on bacteria. Photochemical and Photobiological Reviews. 7:1-75.
39. Jillson, S.J., Dahab, M.F., Woldt, W.E., Surampalli, R.Y. (2001) Pathogen and pathogen indicator removal characteristics in treatment wetlands systems. Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management. 5:3, 153-160.
40. Kadlec, R.H. (1997) Deterministic and stochastic aspects of constructed wetland performance and design. Water Science and Technology. 35, 149-156.
41. Kadlec, R.H. (1999) Chemical, physical and biological cycles in treatment wetlands. Water Science and Technology. 40, 37-44.
42. Kadlec, R.H., Knight, R.L. (1996) Treatment Wetlands, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
43. Kapplemeyer, U., Wiessner, A., Kuschk, P., Kastner, M. (2001) Planted fixed bed reactor (PFR) - Eine universelle testenheit fur bewachsene bodenfilter. Chemie Ingenieur Technik. 73, 1472-1477.
44. Karathanasis, A., Johnson, C. (2003) Metal removal by three aquatic plants in an acid mine drainage wetland. Mine Water and the Environment. 22, 22-30.
45. Karathanasis, A.D., Potter, C.L., Coyne, M.S. (2003) Vegetation effects on fecal bacteria, BOD, and suspended solid removal in constructed wetlands treating domestic wastewater. Ecological Engineering. 20:2, 157-169.
46. Karim, M.R., Manshadi, F.D., Karpiscak, M.M., Gerba, C.P. (2004) The persistence and removal of enteric pathogens in constructed wetlands. Water Research. 38:7, 1831-1837.
47. Karp, G. (1999) Cell and Molecular Biology, 2nd edition. Wiley, NY, USA.
48. Keffala, C., Ghrabi, A. (2005) Nitrogen and bacterial removal in constructed wetlands treating domestic waste water. Desalination. 185:1-3, 383-389.
49. Kern, J., Idler, C. (1999) Treatment of domestic and agricultural wastewater by reed bed systems. Ecological Engineering. 12, 13-25.
50. Knight, R., Kadlec, R., Ohlendorf, H. (1999) The use of treatment wetlands for petroleum industry effluents. Env. Sci. Technol. 33, 973-980.
51. Knopka, A., Oliver, L., Turco, R.F. (1998) The Use of Carbon Substrate Utilization Patterns in Environmental and Ecological Microbiology. Microbial Ecol. 35, 103-115.
52. Kraus, M.P. (1977) Bacterial Indicators and Potential Health Hazards of Aquatic Viruses. pages 196-217 in A.W. Hoadley and B.J. Dutka (eds.) Bacterial Indicators/Health Hazards Associated with Water. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
53. Larsen, E., Greenway, M. (2004) Quantification of biofilms in a sub-surface flow wetland and their role in nutrient removal. Water Science and Technology. 49:11-12, 115-122.
54. LeChevalier, M.W., Au, K. (2004) Water Treatment and Pathogen Control. IWA Publishing. London, United Kingdom.
55. Leclerc, H., Mossel D.A., Trinel P.A., Gavini, F. (1977) Microbiological Monitoring - A New Test for Fecal Contamination. pages 23-36 in A.W. Hoadley and B.J. Dutka (eds.), Bacterial Indicators/Health Hazards Associated with Water. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
56. Liu, W.T., Marsh, T.L., Cheng, H., Forney, L.J. (1997) Characterization of microbial diversity by determining terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism of genes encoding 16s rRNA. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 63, 4516-4522.
57. MacDonald, R., Brozel, V.S. (2000) Community analysis of bacterial biofilms in simulated recirculating cooling-water system by fluorescent in situ hybridization with rRNA targeted oligonucleotide probes. Water Research. 34:9, 2439-2446.
58. Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M., Parker, J. (2002) Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 10th edition. Prentice-Hall, NJ, USA.
59. Maki, J. (1993) The air-water interface as an extreme environment. in T. Ford (ed.) Aquatic microbiology. Blackwell Scientific, Cambridge, MA.
60. Marschner, H. (1995) Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, (2nd edition). Academic Press, London, England.
61. McHenry J, Werker A. (2005) In-situ monitoring of microbial biomass in wetland mesocosms. Water Sci Technol. 51:9, 233-41.
62. McNevin, D., Harrison, M., King, A., David, K., Mitchell, C. (2000) Towards an integrated performance model for subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Journal of Environmental Science and Health- Part A - Toxic Hazardous. 35, 1415-1431.
63. Mitsch, W.J., Wise, K.M. (1998). Water quality, fate of metals, and predictive model validation of a constructed wetland treating acid mine drainage, Water Research, 32: 1888-1900.
64. Montgomery, D.C., (2001) Design and Analysis of Experiments 5th Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York.
65. Morsy, E.A., Al-Herrawy, A.Z., Ali, M.A. (2007) Assessment of cryptosporidium removal from domestic wastewater via constructed wetland systems. Water Air Soil Pollut. 179:207-215.
66. Muyzer, G., De Waal, E.C., Utterlinden, A.G. (1993) Profiling complex microbial populations by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis or polymerase chain reaction-amplified genese coding for 16s rRNA. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 59:3, 695-700.
67. Nadarajah, N. (2007) Activated sludge bacterial community composition responses to temperature fluctuations. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, ON, Canada.
68. Nardi S., Concheri G., Pizzeghello D., Sturaro A., Rella R., Parvoli G. (2000) Soil organic matter mobilization by root exudates. Chemosphere. 5, 653-658.
69. Nasim, A., James, A.P. (1978) Life under conditions of high irradiation. in D. J. Kushner (ed.) Microbial life in extreme environments. Academic Press, London.
70. Neori, A., Reddy, K.R., Ci{dotless}zkova-Koncalova, H., Agami, M. (2000) Bioactive chemicals and biological-biochemical activities and their functions in rhizospheres of wetland plants. Botanical Review. 66, 351-378.
71. Neralla, S., Weaver, R.W., Lesikar, B.J., Persyn, R.A. (2000). Improvement of domestic wastewater quality by subsurface flow constructed wetlands, Bioresource Technology. 75, 19-25.
72. Osborn, A.M., Moore, E.R.B., Timmins, K.N. (2000) An evaluation of terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis for the study of microbial community structure and dynamics. Environmental Microbiology. 2:1, 39-50.
73. Parkinson D., Coleman D.C. (1991) Microbial communities, activity, and biomass. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 34, 3-33.
74. Perfler, R., Laber, J., Langergraber, G., and Haberl, R. (1999) Constructed wetlands for rehabilitation and reuse of surface waters in tropical and subtropical areas - First results from small-scale plots using vertical flow beds. Water Science and Technology. 40, 155-162.
75. Perkins, J., Hunter, C. (2000) Removal of enteric bacteria in a surface flow constructed wetland in Yorkshire, England. Water Research. 34:6, 1941-1947.
76. Perrin, C.J., Wilkes, B., Richardson, J.S. (1992) Testing stream ecosystem responses to additions of treated acid mine drainage: a mesocosm approach. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 11, 1513-1525.
77. Peterson, H. G. (1998). Use of constructed wetlands to process agricultural wastewater. Canadian Journal of Plant Science/Revue Canadienne de Phytotechnie. 78, 199-210.
78. Philippi, L. S., da Costa, R. H. R., Sezerino, P. H. (1999) Domestic effluent treatment through integrated system of septic tank and root zone. Water Science and Technology. 40, 125-131.
79. Prado, A.R. (2004) Application of wetlands for the treatment of chromium-containing wastewater. PhD Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, ON, Canada.
80. Preston-Mafham, J., Boddy, L., Randerson, P.F. (2002) Analysis of microbial community functional diversity using sole-carbon-source utilisation profiles - a critique. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 42, 1-14.
81. Pundsack, J., Axler, R., Hicks, R., Henneck, J., Nordman, D., McCarthy, B. (2001) Seasonal pathogen removal by alternative on-site wastewater treatment systems. Water Environment Research. 73:2, 204-212.
82. Quinonez-Diaz, M.D.J., Karpiscak, M.M., Ellman, E.D., Gerba, C.P. (2001) Removal of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by a constructed wetland receiving untreated domestic wastewater. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering. 36:7, 1311-1320.
83. Rash, J. K. Liehr, S. K. (1999) Flow pattern analysis of constructed wetlands treating landfill leachate. Water Science and Technology. 40, 309-315.
84. Reed, M.L.E., Warner, B.G., Glick, B.R. (2005) Plant growth-promoting bacteria facilitate the growth of the common reed Phragmites australis in the presence of copper or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Current Microbiology. 51, 425-429.
85. Revitt, D. M., Shutes, R. B. E., Llewellyn, N. R., Worrall, P. (1997) Experimental reedbed systems for the treatment of airport runoff. Water Science and Technology. 36, 385-390.
86. Rice, T.D., Williams, H.N., Turng, B.F. (1998) Susceptibility of bacteria in estuarine environments to autochthoneous bdellovibrios. Microb. Ecol. 35, 256-264.
87. Richardson, S.D., Rusch, K.A. (2005) Fecal coliform removal within a marshland upwelling system consisting of scatlake soils. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 131:1, 60-70.
88. Rivera, F., Warren, A., Ramirez, E., Decamp, O., Bonilla, P., Gallegos, E., Calderon, A., Sanchez, J.T. (1995) Removal of pathogens from wastewaters by the root zone method (RZM). Water Science and Technology. 32:3, 211-218.
89. Rochfort, Q. J., Anderson, B. C., Crowder, A. A., Marsalek, J., Watt, W. E. (1997). Fieldscale studies of subsurface flow constructed wetlands for stormwater quality enhancement. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada. 32, 101-107.
90. Sauter, G. Leonard, K. (1997) Wetland design methods for residential wastewater treatment. Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 33, 155-162.
91. Schnürer, J., Rosswall, T. (1982) Fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis as a measure of total microbial activity in soil and litter. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 43, 1256-1261.
92. Schoenerklee, M., Koch, F., Perfler, R., Haberl, R., Laber, J. (1997) Tertiary treatment in a vertical flow reed bed system - A full scale pilot plant for 200-600 people. Water Science and Technology. 35, 223-230.
93. Scholes, L., Shutes, R. B. E., Revitt, D. M., Forshaw, M., Purchase, D. (1998) The treatment of metals in urban runoff by constructed wetlands. Science of the Total Environment. 214, 211-219.
94. Schulze-Makuch, D., Bowman, R.S., Pillai, S.D., Guan, H. (2003) Field evaluation of the effectiveness of surfactant modified zeolite and iron-oxide-coated sand for removing viruses and bacteria from ground water. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation. 23:4, 68-74.
95. Seidel, K. Macrophytes and water purification. (1976) in Biological control of water pollution, Tourbier, J.; Pierson, R.W., Jr., Eds., University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, 109-121.
96. Shutes, R. B. E., Revitt, D. M., Lagerberg, I. M., Barraud, V. C. E. (1999) The design of vegetative constructed wetlands for the treatment of highway runoff. Science of the Total Environment. 235, 189-197.
97. Slifko, T. R., Smith, H. V., Rose, J. B. (2000) Emerging parasite zoonoses associated with water and food. International Journal for Parasitology. 30, 1379-1393.
98. Smith, I. D., Bis, G. N., Lemon, E. R., and Rozema, L. R. (1997) A thermal analysis of a subsurface, vertical flow constructed wetland. Water Science and Technology. 35, 55-62.
99. Soto, F., Garcia, M., de Luis, E., Becares, E. (1999) Role of Scirpus lacustris in bacterial and nutrient removal from wastewater. Water Science and Technology. 40:3, 241-247.
100. Stevik, T.K., Aa, K., Ausland, G., Hanssen, J.F. (2004) Retention and removal of pathogenic bacteria in wastewater percolatingthroug h porous media: a review. Water Research. 38, 1355-1367.
101. Stott, R., Jenkins, T., Bahgat, M., Shalaby, I. (1999) Capacity of constructed wetlands to remove parasite eggs from wastewaters in Egypt. Water Science and Technology. 40, 117-123.
102. Stott, R., Jenkins, T., Shabana, M., May, E. (1997) Survey of the microbial quality of wastewaters in Ismailia, Egypt and the implications for wastewater reuse. Water Science and Technology. 35:11-12, 211-217.
103. Stott, R., Tanner, C.C. (2005) Influence of biofilm on removal of surrogate faecal microbes in a constructed wetland and maturation pond. Water Science and Technology. 51:9, 315-322.
104. Stottmeister, U., Wießner, A., Kuschk, P., Kappelmeyer, U., Kastner, M., Bederski, O., Muller, R.A., Moormann, H. (2003) Effects of plants and microorganisms in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Biotechnology Advances. 22, 93- 117.
105. Suzuki, M.T., Giovannoni, S.J. (1996) Bias caused by template annealing in the amplification of mixtures of 16s rRNA genes by PCR. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 62:2, 625-630.
106. Tanner, C. C., Sukias, J. P., Upsdell, M. P. (1998) Relationships between loading rates and pollutant removal during maturation of gravel-bed constructed wetlands. Journal of Environmental Quality. 27, 448-458.
107. Tanner, C.C., Clayton, J.S., Upsdell, M.P. (1995) Effect of loading rate and planting on treatment of dairy farm wastewaters in constructed wetlands - I. Removal of oxygen demand, suspended solids and faecal coliforms. Water Research. 29:1, 17-26.
108. Tietz, A., Langergraber, G., Watzinger, A., Haberl, R., Kirschner, A.K.T. (2008) Bacterial carbon utilization in vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Water Research, 42, 1622-1634.
109. Tozeren, A., Byers, S.W. (2004) New Biology for engineers and computer scientists. Pearson Education Inc., NJ, USA.
110. Ulrich, H., Klaus, D., Irmgard, F., Annette, H., Juan, L.P., Regine, S. (2005) Microbiological investigations for sanitary assessment of wastewater treated in constructed wetlands. Water Research. 39:20, 4849-4858.
111. Vacca, G., Wand, H., Nikolausz, M., Kuschk, P., Stner, M. (2005) Effect of plants and filter materials on bacteria removal in pilot-scale constructed wetlands. Water Research. 39:7, 1361-1373.
112. Vymazal, J. (2005) Removal of enteric bacteria in constructed treatment wetlands with emergent macrophytes: A review. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering. 40:6-7, 1355-1367.
113. Walker, T.S., Bais, H.P., Grotewold, E., Vivance, J.M., (2003) Root exudation and rhizosphere biology. Plant Physiology. 132, 44-51.
114. Wand, H., Vacca, G., Kuschk, P., Kruger, M., Kastner, M. (2007) Removal of bacteria by filtration in planted and non-planted sand columns. Water Research. 41:1, 159-167.
115. Weber, K.P. (2006) Investigation of the mechanisms and fundamental variables affecting acid mine drainage treatment in wetland mesocosms. M.A.Sc. Thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, ON, Canada.
116. Weber, K.P., Gehder, M., Legge, R.L. (2008) Assessment of the changes in the microbial community in response to acid mine drainage exposure. Water Research. 42:1-2, 180-188.
117. Weber, K.P., Grove, J.A., Gehder, M., Anderson, W.A., Legge, R.L. (2007) Data transformations in the analysis of community-level substrate utilisation data from microplates. J. Microbiol. Methods. 69, 461-469.
118. Werker, A. G., Legge, R. L., Warner, B. G. (2000) Understanding wetland wastewater treatment variability. Canadian Society for Civil Engineering 2000 Conference Proceedings, London, Ontario. 538-544.
119. Werker, A., Dougherty J., McHenry. J., Van Loon, W., Legge, R., Warner, B. (2004) Mesocosms applied for design, optimisation, and benchmarking of wetland wastewater treatment. 9th International Conference on Wetland Systems, Avignon, France.
120. Werker, A.G., Dougherty, J.M., McHenry, J.L., Van Loon, W.A. (2002) Treatment variability for wetland wastewater treatment design in cold climates. Ecological Engineering. 19, 1- 11.
121. Werker, A.G., Van Loon, W., Legge, R.L. (2007) Tracers for investigating pathogen fate and removal mechanisms in mesocosms. Science of the Total Environment. 380, 188-195.
122. Wieder, R.K. (1989) A survey of constructed wetlands for acid coal mine drainage treatment in the eastern United States. Wetlands. 9, 299-315.
123. Wieder, R.K., Linton, M.N., Heston, K.P. (1990) Laboratory mesocosm studies of Fe, Al, Mn, Ca, and Mg dynamics in wetlands exposed to synthetic acid coal mine drainage. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 51, 181-196.
124. Williams, J. B., Zambrano, D., Ford, M. G., May, E., Butler, J. E. (1999) Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in Colombia. Water Science and Technology. 40, 217-223.
125. Williams, J. Bahgat, M., May, E., Ford, M., Butler, J. (1995) Mineralisation and pathogen removal in gravel bed hydroponic constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Water Science and Technology. 32:3, 49-58.
126. Wittgren, H. B. Maehlum, T. (1997) Wastewater treatment wetlands in cold climates. Water Science and Technology. 35, 45-53.
127. Wynn, T.M., Liehr, S.K. (2001) Development of a constructed subsurface-flow wetland simulation model. Ecological Engineering. 16, 519-536.
128. Xiao, L., Fayer, R., Ryan, U., Upton, S. J. (2004) Cryptosporidium taxonomy: Recent advances and implications for public health. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 17, 72-97.
129. Zdragas, A., Zalidis, G.C., Takavakoglou, V., Katsavouni, S., Anastasiadis, E.T., Eskridge, K., Panoras, A. (2002) The effect of environmental conditions on the ability of a constructed wetland to disinfect municipal wastewaters. Environmental Management. 29:4, 510-515.