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Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 33-56

Can reproductive rights be ‘human’ rights? Some thoughts on the inclusion of women's rights in mainstream human rights discourse

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EID: 77957245075     PISSN: 1323238X     EISSN: 2573573X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/1323238X.2000.11911042     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (1)

References (114)
  • 1
    • 85045402988 scopus 로고
    • The first sustained feminist critique of the gendered nature of international law, now regarded as the seminal piece in this area, was Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law’ 85, American Journal of International Law, 190. Since the publication of this article, there has been an incredible proliferation of articles from a feminist perspective critiquing international law and international human rights. The following is by no means a complete list but is intended to indicate the diverse scope of feminist work in the area of international human rights law: Byrnes A ‘Women, Feminism and International Human Rights Law: Methodological Myopia, Fundamental Flaws, or Meaningful Marginalisation? 12, Australian Yearbook of International Law, 205; Charlesworth H ‘The Public/Private Distinction and the Right to Development in International Law’ (1992) 12, Australian Yearbook of International Law, 190;, (ed), (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Copelon R ‘Recognising the Egregious in the Everyday: Domestic Violence as Torture’ 25, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 291; Engle K ‘Female Subjects of Public International Law: Human Rights and the Exotic Other Female’ 26, New England Law Review, 1509; MacKinnon C ‘Rape, Genocide and Women's Human Rights’ 17, Harvard Women's Law Journal, 5;, and, (eds), (Routledge, New York, 1995); Wright S ‘Economic Rights and Social Justice: A Feminist Analysis of Some International Human Rights Conventions’ 12, Australian Yearbook of Intel national Law
    • The first sustained feminist critique of the gendered nature of international law, now regarded as the seminal piece in this area, was Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law’ (1991) 85 American Journal of International Law 190. Since the publication of this article, there has been an incredible proliferation of articles from a feminist perspective critiquing international law and international human rights. The following is by no means a complete list but is intended to indicate the diverse scope of feminist work in the area of international human rights law: Byrnes A ‘Women, Feminism and International Human Rights Law: Methodological Myopia, Fundamental Flaws, or Meaningful Marginalisation?’ (1992) 12 Australian Yearbook of International Law 205; Charlesworth H ‘The Public/Private Distinction and the Right to Development in International Law’ (1992) 12 Australian Yearbook of International Law 190; Cook R, (ed) Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1994); Copelon R ‘Recognising the Egregious in the Everyday: Domestic Violence as Torture’ (1994) 25 Columbia Human Rights Law Review 291; Engle K ‘Female Subjects of Public International Law: Human Rights and the Exotic Other Female’ (1992) 26 New England Law Review 1509; MacKinnon C ‘Rape, Genocide and Women's Human Rights’ (1994) 17 Harvard Women's Law Journal 5; Peters I, and Wolper A, (eds), Women's Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives (Routledge, New York, 1995); Wright S ‘Economic Rights and Social Justice: A Feminist Analysis of Some International Human Rights Conventions’ (1992) 12 Australian Yearbook of Intel national Law 241.
    • (1992) Women's Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives , pp. 241
    • Cook, R.1    Peters, I.2    Wolper, A.3
  • 2
    • 85045415027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook, (ed), See, ’ in, above note 1, p,; Charlesworth H ‘Women's International Human Rights’ in, above note 1, p
    • See Charlesworth H, ‘Human Rights as Men's Rights’ in Peters and Wolper (eds) above note 1, p 103; Charlesworth H ‘Women's International Human Rights’ in Cook (ed) above note 1, p 58.
    • Human Rights as Men's Rights , pp. 58
    • Charlesworth, H.1
  • 3
    • 85045411814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On what it means to say that the law, in general, is gendered, see Davies M ‘Taking the Inside Out: Sex and Gender in the Legal Subject’ in, and, (eds), (LBC Information Services, North Ryde,)
    • On what it means to say that the law, in general, is gendered, see Davies M ‘Taking the Inside Out: Sex and Gender in the Legal Subject’ in Naffine N, and Owens R, (eds) Sexing the Subject of Law (LBC Information Services, North Ryde, 1997) pp 28–30.
    • (1997) Sexing the Subject of Law , pp. 28-30
    • Naffine, N.1    Owens, R.2
  • 4
    • 85045380240 scopus 로고
    • This marginalisation has meant that violations of women's human rights are generally considered in the international legal system under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) by the specialised Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December, 19 ILM 33 (entered into force 3 September, The Committee is established under arts 17–21
    • This marginalisation has meant that violations of women's human rights are generally considered in the international legal system under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) by the specialised Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979, 19 ILM 33 (entered into force 3 September 1981). The Committee is established under arts 17–21.
    • (1981)
  • 5
    • 85045376181 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S, above note 1 at 632; Reanda L Human Rights and Women's Rights: The United Nations Approach’ 3, Human Rights Quarterly
    • See, for example, Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S, above note 1 at 632; Reanda L Human Rights and Women's Rights: The United Nations Approach’ (1981) 3 Human Rights Quarterly 11.
    • (1981) , pp. 11
  • 6
    • 85045415929 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Copelon, above note 1; Etienne M ‘Addressing Gender-Based Violence in an International Context’ 18, Harvard Women's Law Journal, 139; MacKinnon, above note 1
    • See, for example, Copelon, above note 1; Etienne M ‘Addressing Gender-Based Violence in an International Context’ (1995) 18 Harvard Women's Law Journal 139; MacKinnon, above note 1.
    • (1995)
  • 7
    • 85045398465 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See below, notes 34–78 and accompanying text
    • See below, notes 34–78 and accompanying text.
  • 8
    • 85045377973 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Charlesworth H ‘Alienating Oscar? Feminist Analysis of International Law’ in, (ed), (American Society of International Law, Washington, Mertus J and Goldberg P A Perspective on Women and International Human Rights After the Vienna Declaration: the Inside/Outside Construct’ 26, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 201 at 230–3
    • See, for example, Charlesworth H ‘Alienating Oscar? Feminist Analysis of International Law’ in Dorinda, Dallmeyer (ed) Reconceiving Reality: Women and International Law (American Society of International Law, Washington, 1993) pp 7–8; Mertus J and Goldberg P A Perspective on Women and International Human Rights After the Vienna Declaration: the Inside/Outside Construct’ (1994) 26 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 201 at 230–3.
    • (1994) Reconceiving Reality: Women and International Law , pp. 7-8
    • Dallmeyer, D.1
  • 9
    • 85045379637 scopus 로고
    • For example, women's rights were specifically recognised for the first time by the United Nations (UN) at its World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in June,. See Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, World Conference on Human Rights, UN Doc A/CONF.157/24 18, which specifically recognises ‘the human rights of women’ as an ‘inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights
    • For example, women's rights were specifically recognised for the first time by the United Nations (UN) at its World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in June 1993. See Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, World Conference on Human Rights, UN Doc A/CONF.157/24 (1993), § 18, which specifically recognises ‘the human rights of women’ as an ‘inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights’.
    • (1993)
  • 10
    • 85045398951 scopus 로고
    • Mahoney K., Mahoney P., (eds), Human Rights and Women's Rights: an Analysis of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women’ in, (M Nijhoff, Boston,) p
    • Wright S, Human Rights and Women's Rights: an Analysis of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women’ in Mahoney K, and Mahoney P, (eds) Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century (M Nijhoff, Boston, 1993) p 76.
    • (1993) Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century , pp. 76
    • Wright, S.1
  • 11
    • 85045390093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Naffine N and Owens R ‘Sexing Law’ in, (eds), above note 3, p
    • See Naffine N and Owens R ‘Sexing Law’ in Naffine and Owens (eds) above note 3, p 3.
  • 12
    • 85045404607 scopus 로고
    • The State of World Population 1999: 6 Billion A Time for Choices
    • Estimates of Maternal Mortality, (1996) UN Doc. WHO/FRH/MSM/96.11 and UN Doc. UNICEF/PLN/96.1
    • United Nations Population Fund, The State of World Population 1999: 6 Billion A Time for Choices (1999) ch 3, citing World Health Organisation and United Nations Children's Fund Revised 1990 Estimates of Maternal Mortality (1996) UN Doc. WHO/FRH/MSM/96.11 and UN Doc. UNICEF/PLN/96.1.
    • (1990) ch 3, citing World Health Organisation and United Nations Children's Fund Revised
  • 13
    • 85045390083 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 12
    • Above note 12.
  • 14
    • 85045407758 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 12 citing World Health Organisation, Global and Regional Estimates of Incidence of Mortality Due to Unsafe Abortion with a Listing of Available Country Data,) UN Doc. WHO/RHT/MSM/97.16
    • Above note 12 citing World Health Organisation Global and Regional Estimates of Incidence of Mortality Due to Unsafe Abortion with a Listing of Available Country Data (1998) UN Doc. WHO/RHT/MSM/97.16.
    • (1998)
  • 15
    • 85045415172 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 12
    • Above note 12.
  • 16
    • 85045413414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 12
    • Above note 12.
  • 17
    • 85045376774 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 12
    • Above note 12.
  • 18
    • 85045398159 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 12
    • Above note 12.
  • 20
    • 85045404553 scopus 로고
    • See ICPD Secretariat, ICPD Programme of Action, UN Doc A/CONF.171/13
    • See ICPD Secretariat ICPD Programme of Action UN Doc A/CONF.171/13 (1994).
    • (1994)
  • 21
    • 85045401847 scopus 로고
    • See, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, UN Doc A/CONF.177/20
    • See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action UN Doc A/CONF.177/20 (1995).
    • (1995)
  • 22
    • 85045378755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Report of the Secretary General, Twenty-first special session of the General Assembly for an overall review and appraisal of the implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development, UN Doc. A/54/442
    • Report of the Secretary General Twenty-first special session of the General Assembly for an overall review and appraisal of the implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development UN Doc. A/54/442 (1999).
    • (1999)
  • 23
    • 85045394585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, ICPD Programme of Action, above note 20 Ch VII (‘Reproductive Rights and Reproductive Health’ Beijing Platform for Action, above note 21 §§ 89–111 (‘Women and Health
    • See ICPD Programme of Action, above note 20 Ch VII (‘Reproductive Rights and Reproductive Health’); Beijing Platform for Action, above note 21 §§ 89–111 (‘Women and Health’).
  • 24
    • 85045390107 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICPD Programme of Action, above note 20 § 7.2
    • ICPD Programme of Action, above note 20 § 7.2.
  • 25
    • 85045416215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Report of the Secretary General, Proposals for Key Actions for the further implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development, UN Doc. E/CN.9/1999/PC/4 at § 59
    • Report of the Secretary General Proposals for Key Actions for the further implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development UN Doc. E/CN.9/1999/PC/4 at § 59 (1999).
    • (1999)
  • 26
    • 0007429435 scopus 로고
    • The Right to Health: Promotion and Protection of Women's Right to Sexual and Reproductive Health Under International Law: the Economic Covenant and the Women's Convention
    • 1124. In September, the first international conference on health and human rights was organised by the Francois-Xavier Bafnaud Center for Health and Human Rights in Cambridge, Massachusetts: see Hendriks at 1125. Also, the first journal on health and human rights was launched in, Health and Human Rights., HIV/AIDS remains the biggest public health problem in the world today, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where 20.8 million people are infected: see United Nations Population Fund, above note 12
    • Hendriks A, ‘The Right to Health: Promotion and Protection of Women's Right to Sexual and Reproductive Health Under International Law: the Economic Covenant and the Women's Convention’ (1995) 44 American University Law Review 1123, 1124. In September 1994, the first international conference on health and human rights was organised by the Francois-Xavier Bafnaud Center for Health and Human Rights in Cambridge, Massachusetts: see Hendriks at 1125. Also, the first journal on health and human rights was launched in 1995: Health and Human Rights. HIV/AIDS remains the biggest public health problem in the world today, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where 20.8 million people are infected: see United Nations Population Fund, above note 12.
    • (1995) American University Law Review , vol.1123 , pp. 44
    • Hendriks, A.1
  • 27
    • 33645186197 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Chapman A ‘Monitoring Women's Right to Health Under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ 44, American University Law Review, 1157;, (ed), (University of Pennsylvania Press, London, Fathalla M ‘The Impact of Reproductive Subordination on Women's Health: Family Planning Services’ 44, American University Law Review, 1179; Gilbert L ‘Rights, Refugee Women and Reproductive Health’ 44, American University Law Review, 1213; Hendriks, above note 26
    • See, for example, Chapman A ‘Monitoring Women's Right to Health Under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ (1995) 44 American University Law Review 1157; Coliver S, (ed), The Right to Know: Human Rights and Access to Reproductive Health Information (University of Pennsylvania Press, London, 1995); Fathalla M ‘The Impact of Reproductive Subordination on Women's Health: Family Planning Services’ (1995) 44 American University Law Review 1179; Gilbert L ‘Rights, Refugee Women and Reproductive Health’ (1995) 44 American University Law Review 1213; Hendriks, above note 26.
    • (1995) The Right to Know: Human Rights and Access to Reproductive Health Information
    • Coliver, S.1
  • 28
    • 85045401419 scopus 로고
    • See, for example. Cook R, ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’ 44, American University Law Review, 975 at 976; Plata M 1 Reproductive Rights as Human Rights: The Colombian Case’ in, (ed), above note 1, p
    • See, for example. Cook R, ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’ (1995) 44 American University Law Review 975 at 976; Plata M 1 Reproductive Rights as Human Rights: The Colombian Case’ in Cook R, (ed) above note 1, p 515.
    • (1995) , pp. 515
    • Cook, R.1
  • 29
    • 0003620634 scopus 로고
    • (World Health Organization, Geneva,) p,; Cook R ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ 24, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 645; Cook R ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’ above note 28
    • Cook R, Women's Health and Human Rights (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1994) p 19–43; Cook R ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ (1992) 24 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 645; Cook R ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’ above note 28.
    • (1992) Women's Health and Human Rights , pp. 19-43
    • Cook, R.1
  • 31
    • 85045391868 scopus 로고
    • Universal Declaration on Human Rights, GA Res 217A, 3 UN GAOR (183rd plen mtg), UN Doc A/Res/217A
    • Universal Declaration on Human Rights, GA Res 217A, 3 UN GAOR (183rd plen mtg), UN Doc A/Res/217A (1948).
    • (1948)
  • 32
    • 85045395217 scopus 로고
    • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December, 999 UNTS 171, 6 ILM 368 (entered into force 23 March
    • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171, 6 ILM 368 (entered into force 23 March 1976).
    • (1976)
  • 33
    • 85045402023 scopus 로고
    • International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December, 993 UNTS 3, 6 ILM 369 (entered into force 3 January
    • International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3, 6 ILM 369 (entered into force 3 January 1976).
    • (1976)
  • 35
    • 77950222617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This has also been examined in a different context by Hilary Charlesworth: see Charlesworth H ‘Taking the Gender of Rights Seriously’ in, and, (eds), (Federation Press, Leichhardt,) Ch 3
    • This has also been examined in a different context by Hilary Charlesworth: see Charlesworth H ‘Taking the Gender of Rights Seriously’ in Galligan B, and Sampford C, (eds) Rethinking Human Rights (Federation Press, Leichhardt, 1997) Ch 3.
    • (1997) Rethinking Human Rights
    • Galligan, B.1    Sampford, C.2
  • 37
    • 85045382442 scopus 로고
    • Also see, for example, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 26 November, 27 ILM 1152, art 2; American Convention on Human Rights, 22 November, 9 ILM 673, art 4; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 27 June, 21 ILM 58, art 4
    • Also see, for example, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 26 November 1987, 27 ILM 1152, art 2; American Convention on Human Rights, 22 November 1969, 9 ILM 673, art 4; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 27 June 1981, 21 ILM 58, art 4.
    • (1981)
  • 39
    • 85045391183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Charlesworth H, above note 35, p
    • See Charlesworth H, above note 35, p 41.
  • 40
    • 85045386179 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 689
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 689.
  • 41
    • 85045379259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 40
    • Above note 40.
  • 42
    • 85045384830 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Charlesworth H ‘The Public/Private Distinction’ above note 1; Charlesworth H Worlds Apart: Public/Private Distinctions in International Law’ in, (ed), (Oxford University Press, Melbourne,) 243; Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S, above note 1; Romany C ‘State Responsibility Goes Private: A Feminist Critique of the Public/Private Distinction in International Human Rights Law’ in, (ed), above note 1, p
    • See, for example, Charlesworth H ‘The Public/Private Distinction’ above note 1; Charlesworth H Worlds Apart: Public/Private Distinctions in International Law’ in Thornton M, (ed) Public and Private: Feminist Legal Debates (Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995) 243; Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S, above note 1; Romany C ‘State Responsibility Goes Private: A Feminist Critique of the Public/Private Distinction in International Human Rights Law’ in Cook R, (ed) above note 1, p 85.
    • (1995) Public and Private: Feminist Legal Debates , pp. 85
    • Thornton, M.1    Cook, R.2
  • 43
    • 85045407442 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contrast with Engle K After the Collapse of the Public/Private Distinction: Strategising Women's Rights’ in, (ed), above note 8, p, who argues that the retention of the ‘private’ might be liberating for women
    • Contrast with Engle K After the Collapse of the Public/Private Distinction: Strategising Women's Rights’ in Dallmeyer D, (ed) above note 8, p 143, who argues that the retention of the ‘private’ might be liberating for women.
    • Dallmeyer, D.1
  • 44
    • 85045404361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Coliver S ‘The Right to Information Necessary to Reproductive Health and Choice Under International Law’ in, (ed), above note 27, 38,; Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29, at 689–90; Cook ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’ above note 28 at 993
    • See Coliver S ‘The Right to Information Necessary to Reproductive Health and Choice Under International Law’ in Coliver (ed) above note 27, pp 38, 49–50; Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29, at 689–90; Cook ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’ above note 28 at 993.
    • Coliver1
  • 45
    • 85045409956 scopus 로고
    • Human Rights Committee, General Comment 6 on art 6, UN GAOR Hum Rts Comm, § 5, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1
    • Human Rights Committee, General Comment 6 on art 6, UN GAOR Hum Rts Comm, § 5, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1 (1989).
    • (1989)
  • 46
    • 85045386786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above note 45
    • Above note 45.
  • 47
    • 85045375553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 689–90
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 689–90. Cook Women's Health, above note 29, p 24.
    • Cook Women's Health, above note 29 , pp. 24
    • Cook1
  • 49
    • 85045413122 scopus 로고
    • In terms of the assertion of the right to life as supporting women's reproductive rights, a question may be raised concerning whether a pregnant woman's right to life is limited by a right to life of the foetus. However, it is not generally accepted that the international human rights conventions apply before the birth of a human being. For example, art 6(1) ICCPR refers to the right belonging to every ‘human being’. (Compare this with art 4(1) American Convention, which protects life from the moment of conception’. However, even this right has been held to be inapplicable to abortion.) Thus, this argument should not operate to restrict a woman's assertion of the right to life supporting her claim to reproductive self-determination. (But note, Patton u UK, App No 8416/78, 3 Eur HR Rep 408 an abortion case where the woman's right to life was balanced against that of the foetus.)
    • In terms of the assertion of the right to life as supporting women's reproductive rights, a question may be raised concerning whether a pregnant woman's right to life is limited by a right to life of the foetus. However, it is not generally accepted that the international human rights conventions apply before the birth of a human being. For example, art 6(1) ICCPR refers to the right belonging to every ‘human being’. (Compare this with art 4(1) American Convention, which protects life from the moment of conception’. However, even this right has been held to be inapplicable to abortion.) Thus, this argument should not operate to restrict a woman's assertion of the right to life supporting her claim to reproductive self-determination. (But note Patton u UK, App No 8416/78, 3 Eur HR Rep 408 (1981), an abortion case where the woman's right to life was balanced against that of the foetus.)
    • (1981)
  • 50
    • 85045397369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’, above note 28 at 994
    • Cook ‘Human Rights and Reproductive Self-Determination’, above note 28 at 994.
  • 51
    • 85045389056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Coliver, above note 44, p
    • Coliver, above note 44, p 50.
  • 52
    • 85045378029 scopus 로고
    • This right, protected in art 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was held to be violated by the restrictive criminal abortion law of the Supreme Court of Canada: see, Morgentaler,) 44 DLR (4th) 385, cited in Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 183 and 696
    • This right, protected in art 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was held to be violated by the restrictive criminal abortion law of the Supreme Court of Canada: see Morgentaler (1988) 44 DLR (4th) 385, cited in Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 183 and 696.
    • (1988)
  • 53
    • 85045403898 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 696
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’ above note 29 at 696.
  • 54
    • 85045404913 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ICCPR art 9
    • See ICCPR art 9.
  • 55
    • 85045399908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See above notes 42–3 and accompanying text
    • See above notes 42–3 and accompanying text.
  • 56
    • 85045382951 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’, above note 29 at 699
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’, above note 29 at 699.
  • 58
    • 85045391071 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Copelon R ‘Intimate Terror: Understanding Domestic Violence as Torture’ in, (ed), above note 3, p,; Etienne, above note 6 at 156–9; MacKinnon, above note 1
    • See, for example, Copelon R ‘Intimate Terror: Understanding Domestic Violence as Torture’ in Cook (ed) above note 3, p 116; Etienne, above note 6 at 156–9; MacKinnon, above note 1.
    • Cook1
  • 59
    • 85045411462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Above. Also see Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S, above note 1 at 628–30; Romany, above note 42
    • Above. Also see Charlesworth H, Chinkin C and Wright S, above note 1 at 628–30; Romany, above note 42.
  • 60
    • 85045396662 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras, 28 ILM 244
    • See, for example, Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras 28 ILM 244 (1989).
    • (1989)
  • 61
    • 85045391919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See above notes 42–3 and accompanying text
    • See above notes 42–3 and accompanying text.
  • 62
    • 85045393452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UDHR art 16(3); ICCPR art 23(1); ICESCR art 10(1)
    • UDHR art 16(3); ICCPR art 23(1); ICESCR art 10(1).
  • 63
    • 85045391035 scopus 로고
    • See generally Eriksson M, The Right to Marry and Found a Family: A World-Wide Human Right, (Justus Förlag, Uppsala Sweden
    • See generally Eriksson M, The Right to Marry and Found a Family: A World-Wide Human Right (Justus Förlag, Uppsala Sweden, 1990).
    • (1990)
  • 64
    • 85045394331 scopus 로고
    • Human Rights Committee, General Comment on art 23, UN GAOR Hum Rts Comm, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.2
    • Human Rights Committee, General Comment on art 23, UN GAOR Hum Rts Comm, UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.2 (1990).
    • (1990)
  • 65
    • 85045380150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’, above note 29 at 700
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’, above note 29 at 700.
  • 66
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    • Above. Also see Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, above note 4, art 16(1)(e), which expands on this by requiring all states to ensure that women enjoy ‘rights to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights
    • Above. Also see Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, above note 4, art 16(1)(e), which expands on this by requiring all states to ensure that women enjoy ‘rights to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights’.
  • 67
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    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’, above note 29 at 701–2
    • Cook ‘International Protection of Women's Reproductive Rights’, above note 29 at 701–2.
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    • See, for example, Charlesworth ‘Human Rights as Men's Rights’ above note 2, p,; Charlesworth ‘Women's International Human Rights’ above note 2, p
    • See, for example, Charlesworth ‘Human Rights as Men's Rights’ above note 2, p 108; Charlesworth ‘Women's International Human Rights’ above note 2, p 74–5.
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    • The Mind, the Body and Reproductive Health Information
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    • Whitty N, ‘The Mind, the Body and Reproductive Health Information’ (1996) 18 Human Rights Quarterly 224 at 227.
    • (1996) Human Rights Quarterly , vol.224 , pp. 18
    • Whitty, N.1
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    • Wright, above note 1 at 261–3
    • Wright, above note 1 at 261–3.
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    • See above notes 42–3 and accompanying text
    • See above notes 42–3 and accompanying text.
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    • See Coliver above note 44, p,. For instance, the European Court of Human Rights has noted in relation to the right to respect for one's private and family life in art 8 of the European Convention that although the essential object of Article 8 is to protect the individual against arbitrary interference by the public authorities, there may in addition be positive obligations inherent in an effective respect for private life, albeit subject to the State's margin of appreciation’:, Rees v United Kingdom, European Court of Human Rights, 17 October, Series A 106, § 35
    • See Coliver above note 44, p 53. For instance, the European Court of Human Rights has noted in relation to the right to respect for one's private and family life in art 8 of the European Convention that although the essential object of Article 8 is to protect the individual against arbitrary interference by the public authorities, there may in addition be positive obligations inherent in an effective respect for private life, albeit subject to the State's margin of appreciation’: Rees v United Kingdom European Court of Human Rights, 17 October 1986, Series A no. 106, § 35.
    • (1986) , pp. 53
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    • Above note 54
    • Above note 54.
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    • See, for example, Michel A Abortion and International Law: The Status and Possible Extension of Women's Right to Privacy’ 20, Journal of Family Law
    • See, for example, Michel A Abortion and International Law: The Status and Possible Extension of Women's Right to Privacy’ (1981–2) 20 Journal of Family Law 241.
    • (1981) , pp. 241
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    • See, Harris, 448 US 297
    • See Harris 448 US 297.
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    • Webster, 492 US 490. Also see Walker K ‘An Exploration of Art 2(7) of the UN Charter as an Embodiment of the Public/Private Distinction in International Law’ 26, New York University Journal of Intel national Law and Polities, 173 at 186–95
    • Webster 492 US 490. Also see Walker K ‘An Exploration of Art 2(7) of the UN Charter as an Embodiment of the Public/Private Distinction in International Law’ (1994) 26 New York University Journal of Intel national Law and Polities 173 at 186–95.
    • (1994)
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    • See Naffine and Owens, above note 11, p
    • See Naffine and Owens, above note 11, p 6.
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    • Above note 81 p
    • Above note 81 p 7.
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    • There has been a small amount of feminist work on the state and embodiment: See Knop K ‘Re/Statements: Feminism and State Sovereignty in International Law’ 3, Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems, 293; Charlesworth H ‘The Sex of the State in International Law’ in, (eds), above note 3, p
    • There has been a small amount of feminist work on the state and embodiment: See Knop K ‘Re/Statements: Feminism and State Sovereignty in International Law’ (1993) 3 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 293; Charlesworth H ‘The Sex of the State in International Law’ in Naffine and Owens (eds) above note 3, p 251.
    • (1993) , pp. 251
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    • Following the approach used by Ngaire Naffine, Michael Detmold and Rosemary Owens: see Naffine N ‘The Body Bag’ in, (eds), above note 3, p,; Detmold M ‘The Common Law as Embodiment’ in, (eds), above note 3, p,; Owens R ‘Working in the Sex Market’ in Naffine and Owens (eds) above note 3, p,. See also Naffine N and Owens R above note 11, p
    • Following the approach used by Ngaire Naffine, Michael Detmold and Rosemary Owens: see Naffine N ‘The Body Bag’ in Naffine and Owens (eds) above note 3, p 79; Detmold M ‘The Common Law as Embodiment’ in Naffine and Owens (eds) above note 3, p 95; Owens R ‘Working in the Sex Market’ in Naffine and Owens (eds) above note 3, p 119. See also Naffine N and Owens R above note 11, p 12.
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    • See generally Kingdom E ‘Body Politics and Rights’ in, and, (eds), (Dartmouth, Brookfield US,) p,; Peterson V S ‘Whose Rights? A Critique of the ‘Givens’ in Human Rights Discourse’ 15, Alternatives
    • See generally Kingdom E ‘Body Politics and Rights’ in Bridgeman J, and Milins S, (eds) Law and Body Politics: Regulating the Female Body (Dartmouth, Brookfield US, 1995) p 4–5; Peterson V S ‘Whose Rights? A Critique of the ‘Givens’ in Human Rights Discourse’ (1990) 15 Alternatives 303.
    • (1990) Law and Body Politics: Regulating the Female Body , pp. 303-305
    • Bridgeman, J.1    Milins, S.2
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    • See, for example, Locke I, The Second Treatise of Government, (first published 1690) in, (ed), two, Treatises on Government, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 4–6
    • See, for example, Locke I The Second Treatise of Government (first published 1690) in Laslett P, (ed) two Treatises on Government (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992) §§ 4–6 pp 269–70.
    • (1992) , pp. 269-270
    • Laslett, P.1
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    • See Kant I, The Metaphysics of Morals, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Mill J S, On Liberty, (J M Dent and Sons, London, both cited in Naffine, above note 84
    • See Kant I The Metaphysics of Morals (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991); Mill J S On Liberty (J M Dent and Sons, London, 1910), both cited in Naffine, above note 84.
    • (1910)
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    • Locke, above note 86, § 27 p
    • Locke, above note 86, § 27 p 287.
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    • See, for example, Kingdom, above note 85,; Naffine, above note 84
    • See, for example, Kingdom, above note 85, pp 4–5; Naffine, above note 84, pp 80–1.
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    • See, for example, Peterson, above note 85 at 310
    • See, for example, Peterson, above note 85 at 310.
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    • Naffine and Owens, above note 11, p
    • Naffine and Owens, above note 11, p 12.
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    • See, for example, Butler J, Bodies that Mattel, (Routledge, New York, For a brief summary of feminist encounters with the mind/body dichotomy, see Cranny-Francis A, The Body in the Text, (Melbourne University Press, Carlton South Victoria
    • See, for example, Butler J, Bodies that Mattel (Routledge, New York 1993). For a brief summary of feminist encounters with the mind/body dichotomy, see Cranny-Francis A, The Body in the Text (Melbourne University Press, Carlton South Victoria, 1995).
    • (1995)
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    • See generally Russett C, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood, (Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, Tuana N, The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious, and Philosophical Conceptions of Woman's Nature, (Indiana University Press, Bloomington), Ch 5, ‘The Hysteria of Women
    • See generally Russett C Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts 1989); Tuana N The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious, and Philosophical Conceptions of Woman's Nature (Indiana University Press, Bloomington), Ch 5, ‘The Hysteria of Women’ pp 93–107.
    • (1989) , pp. 93-107
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    • Cheah P., Fraser D., Grbich J., (eds) in, above note 81 209 and 214
    • Olsen F, ‘Do (Only) Women Have Bodies?’ in Cheah P, Fraser D, and Grbich J, (eds), above note 81 pp 209 and 214.
    • Do (Only) Women Have Bodies?
    • Olsen, F.1
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    • This construction of woman as body has been accepted in relation to many domestic laws governing reproduction: see Martin S ‘A Woman Centered Approach to Laws on Human Reproduction’, in, and, (eds), above note 10, p
    • This construction of woman as body has been accepted in relation to many domestic laws governing reproduction: see Martin S ‘A Woman Centered Approach to Laws on Human Reproduction’, in Mahoney K, and Mahoney P, (eds), above note 10, p 905.
    • Mahoney, K.1    Mahoney, P.2
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    • Cranny-Francis, above note 96, p
    • Cranny-Francis, above note 96, p 23.
  • 102
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    • On the Subject of ‘Sexing’ the Subject’, in, above note 3, 65 and 73
    • Lacey N, ‘On the Subject of ‘Sexing’ the Subject’, in Naffine and Owens (eds), above note 3, pp 65 and 73.
    • Lacey, N.1
  • 103
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    • International Human Rights and Body Politics’ in Bridgeman J and Millns S, above note 85, 240 and 244
    • Beveridge F, and Mullally S, ‘International Human Rights and Body Politics’ in Bridgeman J and Millns S, above note 85, pp 240 and 244.
    • Beveridge, F.1    Mullally, S.2
  • 104
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    • Olsen, above note 99, p
    • Olsen, above note 99, p 214.
  • 105
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    • A Womb with a View: Women as Mothers and the Discourse of the Body
    • at 165
    • Hadd W, ‘A Womb with a View: Women as Mothers and the Discourse of the Body’ (1991) 36 Berkeley Journal of Sociology 165 at 165.
    • (1991) Berkeley Journal of Sociology , vol.165 , pp. 36
    • Hadd, W.1
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    • Kingdom, above note 85, p
    • Kingdom, above note 85, p 6.
  • 108
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    • Historicising Citizenship: Remembering Broken Promises
    • at 1074
    • Thornton M, ‘Historicising Citizenship: Remembering Broken Promises’ (1996) 20 Melbourne University Law Review 1072 at 1074.
    • (1996) Melbourne University Law Review , vol.1072 , pp. 20
    • Thornton, M.1
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    • Contrast with Smart C, Law, Crime and Sexuality: Essays in Feminism, (Sage Publications, London, who appears to argue that the association of woman with body need not necessarily be negative. She states that ‘[i]t is this reduction of woman to sex/body that is a source of anger, not because women want to be appreciated for their minds or be disembodied, but because of the meanings currently attributed to embodiment’ p
    • Contrast with Smart C Law, Crime and Sexuality: Essays in Feminism (Sage Publications, London, 1995), who appears to argue that the association of woman with body need not necessarily be negative. She states that ‘[i]t is this reduction of woman to sex/body that is a source of anger, not because women want to be appreciated for their minds or be disembodied, but because of the meanings currently attributed to embodiment’ p 222.
    • (1995) , pp. 222
  • 110
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    • Hadd, above note 105 at 167–73
    • Hadd, above note 105 at 167–73.
  • 111
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    • See, for example, Lacey, above note 102
    • See, for example, Lacey, above note 102.
  • 112
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    • See, for example, Detmold, above note 84
    • See, for example, Detmold, above note 84.
  • 113
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    • Hadd, above note 105 at 167
    • Hadd, above note 105 at 167.


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