Bioactive ceramic-reinforced composites for bone augmentation

Journal of the Royal Society Interface

Volumn 7, Issue SUPPL. 5, 2010, Pages

  Tanner, K E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bioactive composites; Biological properties; Biomechanical properties; Bone replacement; Hydroxyapatite; Polymers

Indexed keywords

APATITE; BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS; BIOMATERIALS; BIOMECHANICS; BONE; CERAMIC MATERIALS; COMPOSITE MATERIALS; CREEP TESTING; FATIGUE TESTING; FILLERS; FRACTURE; FRACTURE TESTING; FRACTURE TOUGHNESS; HYDROXYAPATITE; POLYMERS;

BIOACTIVE CERAMIC; BIOACTIVE COMPOSITES; BIOINERT; BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES; BIOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES; BONE AUGMENTATION; BONE REPLACEMENT; FILLER CONTENTS; FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING; HUMAN BODIES; IN-VITRO; MAN-MADE COMPOSITES; MIDDLE EARS; PRODUCTION METHODS; QUASI-STATIC; REINFORCED COMPOSITES; REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE;

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES;

BIOCERAMICS; BIOMATERIAL; HYDROXYAPATITE;

BONE GRAFT; COMPOSITE MATERIAL; HUMAN; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; MATERIALS TESTING; MIDDLE EAR; NONHUMAN; REACTION OPTIMIZATION; REVIEW;

EID: 77957122903     PISSN: 17425689     EISSN: 17425662     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2010.0229.focus     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Bleach, N. C., Tanner, K. E., Kellomäki, M. & Törmälä, P. 2001 Effect of filler type on the mechanical properties of self-reinforced polylactide calcium phosphate composites. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 12, 911-915. (doi:10.1023/A:1012884310027)
2. Bleach, N. C., Nazhat, S. N., Tanner, K. E., Kellomäki, M. & Törmälä, P. 2002 Effect of filler content on mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of particulate biphasic calcium phosphate polylactide composites. Biomaterials 23, 1579-1585. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(01) 00283-6) (Pubitemid 34158580)
3. Bonfield, W. 1988 Hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene as an analogous material for bone replacement. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 523, 173-177. (doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb38510.x)
4. Bonfield, W. & Grynpas, M. D. 1977 Anistropy of the Young's modulus of bone. Nature 270, 453-454. (doi:10.1038/270453a0)
5. Bonfield, W. & Li, C. H. 1966 Deformation and fracture of bone. J. Appl. Phys. 37, 869. (doi:10.1063/1.1708274)
6. Bonfield, W. & Li, C. H. 1967 Anisotropy of non-elastic flow in bone. J. Appl. Phys. 38, 2450. (doi:10.1063/1.1709926)
7. Bonfield, W., Bowman, J. & Grynpas, M. D. 1980 Composite materials for use in orthopaedics. GB2085461B.
8. Bonfield, W., Grynpas, M., Tully, A. E., Bowman, J. & Abram, J. 1981 Hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene: a mechanically compatible implant materials for bone-replacement. Biomaterials 2, 185-186. (doi:10.1016/0142- 9612(81)90050-8) (Pubitemid 11045313)
9. Bonfield, W., Doyle, C. & Tanner, K. E. 1986 In vivo evaluation of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composites. In Biological and biomechanical performance of biomaterials. (eds P. Cristel, A. Meunier & A. J. C. Lee), pp. 153-158. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers.
10. Bonfield, W., Wang, M. & Tanner, K. E. 1998 Interfaces in analogue biomaterials. Acta Mater. 46, 2509-2518. (doi:10.1016/S1359-6454(98)80035-9)
11. Bonner, M., Ward, I. M., McGregor, W. J., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 2001 Hydroxyapatite/polypropylene composite: a novel bone substitute material. J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 20, 2049-2051. (doi:10.1023/A:1013594125371)
12. Bonner, M., Saunders, L. S., Ward, I. M., Davies, G. W., Wang, M., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 2002 Anisotropic mechanical properties of orientated HAPEX™. J. Mater. Sci. 37, 325-334. (doi:10.1023/A: 1013652312670)
13. Charnley, J. 1975 Histology of loosening between acrylic cement and bone. J. Bone Joint Surg. 57-B, 245-245.
14. Chen, D. Z., Tang, C. Y., Chan, K. C., Tsui, C. P., Yu, P. H. F., Leung, M. C. P. & Uskokovic, P. S. 2007 Dynamic mechanical properties and in vitro bioactivity of PHBHV/HA nanocomposite. Comp. Sci. Tech. 67, 1617-1626. (doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.07.034)
15. Coskun, S., Korkusuz, F. & Hasirci, V. 2005 Hydroxyapatite reinforced poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) based degradable composite bone plate. J. Biomater. Sci. Poly Ed. 16, 1485-1502. (doi:10.1163/156856205774576727)
16. Currey, J. D. 1969 Mechanical consequences of variation in mineral content of bone. J. Biomech. 2, 1. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290(69)90036-0)
17. Currey, J. D. 1998 Mechanical properties of vertebrate hard tissues. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 212-H, 399-413. (doi:10.1243/0954411981534178)
18. Dalby, M. J., Di Silvio, L., Harper, E. J. & Bonfield, W. 1999 In vitro evaluation of a new polymethylmethacrylate cement reinforced with hydroxyapatite. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 10, 793-796. (doi:10.1023/A: 1008907218330)
19. Dalby, M. J., Di Silvio, L., Davies, G. W. & Bonfield, W. 2000 Surface topography and HA filler volume effect on primary human osteoblasts in vitro. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 11, 805-810. (doi:10.1023/A:1008957630020)
20. Dalby, M. J., Di Silvio, L., Harper, E. J. & Bonfield, W. 2001 Initial interaction of osteoblasts with the surface of a hydroxyapatite- poly(methylmethacrylate) cement. Biomaterials 22, 1739-1747. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00334-3) (Pubitemid 32564963)
21. Dalby, M. J., Kayser, M. V., Bonfield, W. & Di Silvio, L. 2002 Initial attachment of osteoblasts to an optimised HAPEXTM topography. Biomaterials 23, 681-690. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(01)00156-9) (Pubitemid 33108945)
22. Deb, S., Wang, M., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1996 Hydroxyapatite-polyethylene composites: effect of grafting and surface treatment of hydroxyapatite. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 7, 191-193. (doi:10.1007/ BF00134322)
23. Di Silvio, L., Dalby, M. J. & Bonfield, W. 1998 In vitro response of osteoblasts to hydroxyapatite-reinforced polyethylene composites. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 9, 845-848. (doi:10.1023/A:1008900312950)
24. Di Silvio, L., Dalby, M. J. & Bonfield, W. 2002a Osteoblast behaviour on HA/PE composite surfaces with different HA volumes. Biomaterials 23, 101-107. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(01)00084-9) (Pubitemid 33041345)
25. Di Silvio, L., Dalby, M. J., Gurav, N., Annaz, B., Kayser, M. V. & Bonfield, W. 2002b Optimizing HAPEXTM topography influences osteoblast response. Tissue Eng. 8, 453-467.
26. Dornhoffer, J. L. 1998 Hearing results with the Dornhoffer ossicular replacement prostheses. Laryngoscope 108, 531-536. (doi:10.1097/00005537- 199804000-00013)
27. Downes, R. N., Vardy, S., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1991 Hydroxyapatite-polyethylene composite in ophthalmic surgery. In Bioceramics 4. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Ceramics in Medicine, London, UK, 11-13 September 1991 (eds W. Bonfield, G. W. Hastings & K. E. Tanner), pp. 239-246. London, UK: Butterworth-Heinnemann Ltd.
28. Doyle, C., Luklinska, Z. B., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1990 An ultra-structural study of the interface developed between hydroxyapatite/polymer composite and bone. In Clinical implant materials (eds G. Heimke, U. Soltèsz & A. J. C. Lee), pp. 339-344. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
29. Doyle, C., Tanner, E. T. & Bonfield, W. 1991 In vitro and in vivo evaluation of polyhydroxybutyrate and of polyhydroxybutyrate reinforced with hydroxyapatite. Biomaterials 12, 841-847. (doi:10.1016/0142-9612(91)90072-I)
30. Engh, C. A., Bobyn, J. D. & Glassman, A. H. 1987 Porouscoated hip replacement - the factors governing bone ingrowth, stress shielding and clinical results. J. Bone Joint Surg. 69-B, 45-55.
31. Eniwumide, J. O., Joseph, R. & Tanner, K. E. 2004 Effect of particle morphology and polyethylene molecular weight on the fracture toughness of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composite. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 15, 1147-1152. (doi:10.1023/B:JMSM.0000046398.17027.97)
32. Friedrich, K. & Karsch, U. A. 1983 Failure processes in particulate filled polypropylene. Fibre Sci. Technol. 18, 37-52. (doi:10.1016/0015-0568(83) 90049-0)
33. Goldenberg, R. A. 1994 Ossiculoplasty with composite prostheses-PORP and TORP. Otolaryngol. Clin. North Am. 27, 727-745.
34. Guild, F. J. & Bonfield, W. 1993 Predictive modeling of hydroxyapatite polyethylene composite. Biomaterials 14, 985-993. (doi:10.1016/0142-9612(93)90190-D)
35. Guild, F. J. & Bonfield, W. 1998 Predictive modelling of the mechanical properties and failure processes in hydroxyapatite-polyethylene (HAPEXTM) composite. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 9, 497-502. (doi:10.1023/A: 1008831720198)
36. Hao, L., Savalani, M. M., Zhang, Y., Tanner, K. E. & Harris, R. A. 2006a Selective laser sintering of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene scaffolds for bioactive implants and tissue scaffold development. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 220-H, 521-531. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM67)
37. Hao, L., Savalani, M. M., Zhang, Y., Tanner, K. E. & Harris, R. A. 2006b The effect of material and processing conditions on characteristics of hydroxyapatite and high density polyethylene bio-composite by selective laser sintering. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. L 220-L, 125-137. (doi:10.1243/14644207JMDA92)
38. Hao, L., Savalani, M. M., Zhang, Y., Tanner, K. E., Heath, R. J. & Harris, R. A. 2007 Characterisation of selective laser sintered hydroxyapatite based biocomposite structures for bone replacement. Proc. R. Soc. A 463, 1857-1869. (doi:10.1098/rspa.2007.1854)
39. Hao, L., Savalani, M. M., Zhang, Y., Tanner, K. E. & Harris, R. A. 2009 Rapid manufacturing of bioceramic/polymer composite implants by selective laser sintering. Int. J. Comp. Appl. Tech. 36, 97-103. (doi:10.1504/IJCAT.2009. 026667)
40. Harper, E. J. 1998 Bioactive bone cements. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 212-H, 113-120. (doi:10.1243/0954411981533881)
41. Harrigan, T. P., Kareh, J. A., O'Connor, D. A., Burke, D. W. & Harris, W. H. 1992 A finite element study of the initiation of failure of fixation in cemented total hip components. J. Orthop. Res. 10, 134-144. (doi:10.1002/jor.1100100116)
42. Hench, L. L. & Polak, J. M. 2002 Third-generation biomedical materials. Science 295, 1014-1017. (doi:10.1126/science.1067404)
43. Huang, J., Di Silvio, L., Wang, M., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1997a In vitro assessment of hydroxyapatite- and Bioglass®-reinforced polyethylene. In Bioceramics 10. Proc. 10th Int. Symp. Ceramics in Medicine, Paris, France, 5-9 October 1997 (eds L. Sedel & C. Rey), pp. 519-522. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Ltd.
44. Huang, J., Di Silvio, L., Wang, M., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1997b In vitro mechanical and biological assessment of hydroxyapatite-reinforced polyethylene composite. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 8, 775-779. (doi:10.1023/A:1018516813604)
45. Huang, J., Di Silvio, L., Wang, M., Rehman, I., Ohtsuki, C. & Bonfield, W. 1997c Evaluation of in vitro bioactivity and biocompatibility of Bioglass®-reinforced polyethylene composite. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 8, 809-813. (doi:10.1023/A:1018581100400)
46. Huang, J., Wang, M., Best, S. M., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1998 Evaluation of Bioglass®- and hydroxyapatite-reinforced polyethylene composites after aging in simulated body fluid. In Bioceramics 11. Proc. 11th Int. Symp. Ceramics in Medicine, New York, NY, 5-8 November 1998 (eds R. Z. LeGeros & J. P. LeGeros), pp. 165-168. Singapore: World Scientific Press.
47. Jones, L. C. & Hungerford, D. S. 1987 Cement disease. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 225, 192-206.
48. Joseph, R. & Tanner, K. E. 2005 Effect of morphological features and surface area of hydroxyapatite on the fatigue behaviour of hydroxyapatite- polyethylene composites. Biomacromolecules 6, 1021-1026. (doi:10.1021/bm0493180)
49. Joseph, R., Martyn, M. T., Tanner, K. E., Coates, P. D. & Bonfield, W. 2001a Rheological characterisation of hydroxyapatite filled polyethylene composites. Part 1. Shear and extensional behaviour. Plastics Rubbers Composites 30, 197-204.
50. Joseph, R., McGregor, W. J., Martyn, M. T., Tanner, K. E., Coates, P. D. & Bonfield, W. 2001b Rheological characterisation of hydroxyapatite filled polyethylene composites. Part 2. Isothermal compressibility and wall slip. Plastics Rubbers Composites 30, 205-212.
51. Joseph, R., McGregor, W. J., Martyn, M. T., Tanner, K. E. & Coates, P. D. 2002a Effect of hydroxyapatite morphology/surface area on the rheology and processability of hydroxyapatite filled polyethylene composites. Biomaterials 23, 4295-4302. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00192-8) (Pubitemid 34814998)
52. Joseph, R., McGregor, W. J., Martyn, M. T., Tanner, K. E., Coates, P. D. & Bonfield, W. 2002b Effect of polymer matrix on the rheology of hydroxyapatite filled polyethylene composites. Polymer Eng. Sci. 42, 326-335. (doi:10.1002/pen.10951)
53. Juhasz, J. A., Best, S. M., Bonfield, W., Kawashita, M., Miyata, N., Kokubo, T. & Nakamura, T. 2003 Apatite-forming ability of glass-ceramic apatite-wollastonite - polyethylene composites: effect of filler content. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 14, 489-495. (doi:10.1023/A:1023499728588)
54. Juhasz, J. A., Best, S. M., Brooks, R., Kawashita, M., Miyata, N., Kokubo, T., Nakamura, T. & Bonfield, W. 2004 Mechanical properties of glass-ceramic A-W-polyethylene composites: effect of filler content and particle size. Biomaterials 25, 949-955. (doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.07.005)
55. Kadoya, Y., Revell, P. A., Kobayashi, A., Al Saffar, N., Scott, G. & Freeman, M. A. R. 1997 Wear particulate species and bone loss in failed total joint arthroplasties. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 340, 118-129. (doi:10.1097/ 00003086-199707000-00016)
56. Katz, J. L., Misra, A., Spencer, P., Wang, Y., Bumrerraj, S., Nomura, T., Eppell, S. J. & Tabib-Azar, M. 2007 Multiscale mechanics of hierarchical structure/property relationships in calcified tissues and tissue/material interfaces. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Biomimet. Supramol. Syst. 27, 450-468.
57. Knowles, J. C. & Hastings, G. W. 1993 In vitro and in vivo investigation of a range of phosphate glass-reinforced polyhydroxybutyrate-based degradable composites. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 4, 102-106. (doi:10.1007/BF00120377)
58. Kobayashi, A., Freeman, M. A. R., Bonfield, W., Kadoya, Y., Yamac, T., Al Saffar, N., Scott, G. & Revell, P. A. 1997 Number of polyethylene particles and osteolysis in total joint replacements: a quantitative study using a tissue-digestion method. J. Bone Joint Surg. 79B, 844-848. (doi:10.1302/0301- 620X.79B5.7602)
59. 3. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 24, 721-734. (doi:10.1002/jbm.820240607)
60. Ladizesky, N. H., Ward, I. M. & Bonfield, W. 1997 Hydrostatic extrusion of polyethylene filled with hydroxyapatite. Polym. Adv. Tech. 8, 496-504. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1581(199708)8:8〈496::AID-PAT676〉3.0. CO;2-R)
61. Lakes, R. S. & Katz, J. L. 1979a Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone. 2. Relaxation mechanisms. J. Biomech. 12, 679-687. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290(79)90017-4)
62. Lakes, R. S. & Katz, J. L. 1979b Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone. 3. Nonlinear constitutive equation. J. Biomech. 12, 689-698. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290(79)90018-6)
63. Lakes, R. S., Katz, J. L. & Sternstein, S. S. 1979 Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone. 1. Torsional and biaxial studies. J. Biomech. 12, 657-678. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290(79)90016-2)
64. Luklinska, Z. B. & Bonfield, W. 1997 Morphology and ultrastructure of the interface between hydroxyapatite-polyhydroxybutyrate composite implant and bone. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 8, 379-383. (doi:10.1023/A:1018589018205)
65. McGregor, W. J., Tanner, K. E., Bonfield, W., Bonner, M. J., Saunders, L. S. & Ward, I. M. 2000 Fatigue properties of isotropic and hydrostatically extruded HAPEX™. J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 19, 1787-1788. (doi:10.1023/A: 100672180210)
66. Meijer, A. G. W., Segenhout, H. M., Albers, F. W. J. & van de Want, H. J. L. 2002 Histopathology of biocompatible hydroxylapatite-polyethylene composite in ossiculoplasty. ORL J. Otorhinolaryngol. Relat. Spec. 64, 173-179. (doi:10.1159/000058021)
67. Nazhat, S. N., Joseph, R., Wang, M., Smith, R., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 2000 Dynamic mechanical characterisation of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene: effect of particle size. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 11, 621-628. (doi:10.1023/A:1008957729512)
68. Nazhat, S. N., Kellomäki, M., Törmälä, P., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 2001 Dynamic mechanical characterization of biodegradable composites of hydroxyapatite and polylactides. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater. 58, 335-343. (doi:10.1002/jbm.1026)
69. Parkhill, C. 1897 A new apparatus for the fixation of bones after resection and in fractures with a tendency to displace. Trans. Am. Surg. Assoc. 15, 251-254.
70. (Reprinted in Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 180, 3-6.)
71. Quinn, J., Joyner, C., Triffitt, J. T. & Athanasou, N. A. 1992 Polymethylmethacrylate-induced inflammatory macrophages resorb bone. J. Bone Joint Surg. 74-B, 652-658.
72. Rea, S. M., Brooks, R. A., Schneider, A., Best, S. M. & Bonfield, W. 2004a Osteoblast-like cell response to bioactive composites surface-topography and composition effects. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 70B, 250-261. (doi:10.1002/jbm.b.30039)
73. Rea, S. M., Brooks, R. A., Best, S. M., Kokubo, T. & Bonfield, W. 2004b Proliferation and differentiation of osteoblast-like cells on apatite-wollastonite/polyethylene composites. Biomaterials 25, 4503-4512. (doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.11.016) (Pubitemid 38388610)
74. Rea, S. M., Best, S. M. & Bonfield, W. 2004c Bioactivity of ceramic-polymer composites with varied composition and surface topography. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 15, 997-1005. (doi:10.1023/B:JMSM.0000042685.63383.86)
75. Revell, P. A., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 1997 Bone growth into implants of hydroxyapatite-coated titanium and hydroxyapatite-polyethylene composite implants. J. Pathol. 181, A12.
76. Sabokbar, A., Fujikawa, Y., Brett, J., Murray, D. W. & Athanasou, N. A. 1996 Increased osteoclastic differentiation by PMMA particle-associated macrophages - inhibitory effect by interleukin 4 and leukemia inhibitory factor. Acta Orthop. Scand. 67, 593-598. (doi:10.3109/17453679608997763)
77. Sarmiento, A., Zych, G. A., Latta, L. L. & Tarr, R. R. 1979 Clinical experiences with a titanium alloy total hipprosthesis - posterior approach. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 144, 166-173.
78. 2 and Nd :YAG lasers for the selective laser sintering of HAPEX. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B J. Eng. Manuf. 220-B, 171-182. (doi:10.1243/ 095440505X32986)
79. Savalani, M. M., Hao, L., Zhang, Y., Tanner, K. E. & Harris, R. A. 2007 Fabrication of porous bioactive structures using the selective laser sintering technique. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 221-H, 873-886. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM232)
80. Suwanprateeb, J., Tanner, K. E., Turner, S. & Bonfield, W. 1995 Creep in polytheylene and hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 6, 804-807. (doi:10.1007/BF00134321)
81. Suwanprateeb, J., Tanner, K. E., Turner, S. & Bonfield, W. 1997 Influence of Ringer's solution on creep resistance of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composites. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 8, 469-472. (doi:10.1023/A:1018522025474)
82. Suwanprateeb, J., Tanner, K. E., Turner, S. & Bonfield, W. 1998 Influence of sterilisation by gamma-irradiation and of thermal annealing on creep of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composites. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 39, 16-22. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(199801)39:1〈16::AID- JBM3〉3.0.CO;2-L)
83. Tanner, K. E., Doyle, C. & Bonfield, W. 1990 The strength of the interface developed between biomaterials and bone. In Clinical implant materials (eds G. Heimke, U. Soltèsz & A. J. C. Lee), pp. 149-154. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
84. Tanner, K. E., Downes, R. N. & Bonfield, W. 1994 Clinical application of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene. Br. Ceram. Trans. 93, 104-107.
85. Ton That, P. T., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 2000a Fatigue characterisation of a hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composite. Part I. Uniaxial fatigue. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 51, 453-460. (doi:10.1002/1097- 4636(20000905)51:3〈453::AID-JBM20〉3.0.CO;2-Q)
86. Ton That, P. T., Tanner, K. E. & Bonfield, W. 2000b Fatigue characterisation of a hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composite. Part II. Biaxial fatigue. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 51, 461-468. (doi:10.1002/1097- 4636(20000905)51:3〈461::AID-JBM21〉3.0.CO;2-M)
87. Törmälä, P., Kellomäki, M., Bonfield, W. & Tanner, K. E. 1997 Bioactive and biodegradable composites of polymers and ceramics or glasses and method to manufacture such composites. US Patent application no. 08/921,533.
88. Wang, M. & Bonfield, W. 2001 Chemically coupled hydroxyapatite- polyethylene composites: structure and properties. Biomaterials 22, 1311-1320. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00283-0) (Pubitemid 32409952)
89. Wang, M., Porter, D. & Bonfield, W. 1994 Processing, characterization and evaluation of hydroxyapatite-reinforced polyethylene composites. Br. Ceram. Trans. 93, 91-95.
90. Wang, M., Joseph, R. & Bonfield, W. 1998a Hydroxyapatite-polyethylene composites for bone substitution: effects of ceramic particle size and morphology. Biomaterials 19, 2357-2366. (doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(98)00154-9) (Pubitemid 28550403)
91. Wang, M., Hench, L. L. & Bonfield, W. 1998b Bioglass® high density polyethylene composite for soft tissue applications: preparation and evaluation. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 42, 577-586. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- 4636(19981215)42:4〈577::AID-JBM14〉3.0.CO;2-2)
92. Wang, M., Deb, S. & Bonfield, W. 2000a Chemically coupled hydroxyapatite-polyethylene composites: processing and characterisation. Mater. Lett. 44, 119-124. (doi:10.1016/S0167-577X(00)00026-4)
93. Wang, M., Ladizesky, N. H., Tanner, K. E., Ward, I. M. & Bonfield, W. 2000b Hydrostatically extruded HAPEX™. J. Mater. Sci. 35, 1023-1030. (doi:10.1023/A:1004731315328)
94. Waris, T., Pohjonen, T. & Törmälä, P. 1994 Self-reinforced absorbable polylactide (SR-PLLA) plates in craniofacial surgery - a preliminary report on 14 patients. Euro. J. Plast. Surg. 17, 236-238. (doi:10.1007/BF00208837)
95. Westbroek, P. & Marin, F. 1998 A marriage of bone and nacre. Nature 392, 861-862. (doi:10.1038/31798)
96. Zhang, Y. & Tanner, K. E. 2003 Impact behaviour of hydroxyapatite reinforced polyethylene composites. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 14, 63-68. (doi:10.1023/A:1021553504549)
97. Zhang, Y. & Tanner, K. E. 2008 Effect of filler surface morphology on the impact behaviour of hydroxyapatite reinforced high density polyethylene composites. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 19, 761-766. (doi:10.1007/s10856-007- 3119-1)
98. Zhang, Y., Tanner, K. E., Gurav, N. & Di Silvio, L. 2007 In vitro osteoblastic response to 30 vol% hydroxyapatite polyethylene composite. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 81-A, 409-417. (doi:10.1002/jbm.a.31078)
99. Zhang, Y., Hao, L., Savalani, M. M., Harris, R. A. & Tanner, K. E. 2008 Characterization and dynamic mechanical analysis of selective laser sintered hydroxyapatite filled polymeric composites. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 86-A, 606-616. (doi:10.1002/jbm.a.31622)
100. Zhang, Y., Hao, L., Savalani, M. M., Harris, R. A., Di Silvio, L. & Tanner, K. E. 2009 In vitro biocompatibility of hydroxyapatite reinforced polymeric composites manufactured by selective laser sintering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 91-A, 1018-1027. (doi:10.1002/jbm.a.32298)