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Volumn 6, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 354-374

Foucault and the unfinished human of rights

Author keywords

Anti humanism; Foucault; Human rights; Power knowledge; Subject

Indexed keywords


EID: 77956523997     PISSN: 17438721     EISSN: 17439752     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1743872110374262     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (34)

References (127)
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    • note
    • By Foucault's "late work" I mean that body of work conducted after 1978-79, for which the problematic of "governmentality" serves as a conceptual bridge and in which Foucault engages with a range of different yet related concerns. Among these concerns are: first and foremost, his examination of ethics in antiquity and the elaboration of subjectivity through "technologies of the self" such as parrhesia and hypomnemata (and a comparison of these techniques both with early Christian and contemporary hermeneutics of the self); secondly, the related questions of Enlightenment, the "attitude of modernity," critique and critical ontology; and, finally, the deployment of certain of these notions in the context of contemporary debates around gay desire, subjectivity and identity politics. What unites these fields of study and political interventions is Foucault's more explicit thematization of a resistant subjectivity. For the purposes of this article I adopt the standard tripartite division of Foucault's work into the archaeological, the genealogical and the ethical (or, what I have compendiously but no doubt reductively referred to here as the "late work")
  • 3
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    • note
    • With Han, I accept the criticisms of the division but retain it for orienting and heuristic purposes.
  • 8
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    • Foucault, Levinas and the Subject of Responsibility
    • in Jeremy Moss, ed, London: Sage
    • Barry Smart, "Foucault, Levinas and the Subject of Responsibility," in Jeremy Moss, ed., The Later Foucault: Politics and Philosophy (London: Sage, 1998), p. 79.
    • (1998) The Later Foucault: Politics and Philosophy , pp. 79
    • Smart, B.1
  • 9
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    • note
    • Of course, not all the commentators on the late Foucault conceive his conceptualization of subjectivity in this way, and I am one of them. Here I am referencing the most recent, and extensive, engagement with Foucault's late work on the topic of the subject which does conceives the subject in precisely these terms
  • 10
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    • New York: Other Press, I engage with Paras's work, along with the work of other scholars, in more detail in the second section of this article
    • Eric Paras, Foucault 2.0: Beyond Power and Knowledge (New York: Other Press, 2006). I engage with Paras's work, along with the work of other scholars, in more detail in the second section of this article.
    • (2006) Foucault 2.0: Beyond Power and Knowledge
    • Paras, E.1
  • 11
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    • note
    • I discuss Foucault's critique of humanism and humanitarianism in the third section of this article, wherein I situate it in regards to Foucault's critical engagement with human rights.
  • 14
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    • Foucault the Neohumanist?
    • September 1
    • Richard Wolin, "Foucault the Neohumanist?," Chronicle of Higher Education, September 1, 2006, p. 106
    • (2006) Chronicle of Higher Education , pp. 106
    • Wolin, R.1
  • 16
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    • note
    • He [Foucault] came to realize that much of what French structuralism had during the 1960s rejected as humanist pap retained considerable ethical and political value. That re-evaluation of humanism redounds to his credit as a thinker
  • 20
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    • Foucault's Enlightenment: Critique, Revolution, and the Fashioning of the Self
    • in Michael Kelly, ed, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    • James Schmidt and Thomas Wartenburg, "Foucault's Enlightenment: Critique, Revolution, and the Fashioning of the Self," in Michael Kelly, ed., Critique and Power: Recasting the Foucault/Habermas Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), p. 287
    • (1994) Critique and Power: Recasting the Foucault/Habermas Debate , pp. 287
    • Schmidt, J.1    Wartenburg, T.2
  • 21
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    • note
    • [Foucault's] invocation of Kant should neither be written of as an ironic gesture nor turned into a deathbed confession of defeat
  • 22
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    • Ian Hacking, "Self Improvement," in David Couzens Hoy, ed., Oxford: Blackwell, comparing Foucault to Hume
    • Ian Hacking, "Self Improvement," in David Couzens Hoy, ed., Foucault: A Critical Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), p. 238 (comparing Foucault to Hume).
    • (1986) Foucault: A Critical Reader , pp. 238
  • 23
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    • What is Critique? An Essay in Foucault's Virtue
    • in Sarah Salih and Judith Butler, eds, Oxford: Blackwell
    • Judith Butler, "What is Critique? An Essay in Foucault's Virtue," in Sarah Salih and Judith Butler, eds., The Judith Butler Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), p. 320.
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    • The Ethics of the Concern for Self as a Practice of Freedom
    • Trans. R. Hurley et al, in Paul Rabinow, ed., Harmondsworth: Allen Lane/Penguin
    • Michel Foucault, "The Ethics of the Concern for Self as a Practice of Freedom," Trans. R. Hurley et al, in Paul Rabinow, ed., Essential Works of Foucault 1954-1984, Vol 1: Ethics, Subjectivity and Truth (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane/Penguin, 1997), p. 290.
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  • 25
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    • note
    • Foucault is of course read by many people as a, perhaps the, historian of discontinuity (and such readings contribute to how he is read himself). Foucault's early archaeological approach to history (as practiced, for example, in a text like The Order of Things) has been criticized for focusing solely upon epistemological breaks and discontinuities and for not offering a plausible theory of historical change. The most famous critique of The Order of Things along these lines was that of Jean-Paul Sartre, who argued that Foucault had, in substituting the random discontinuity of structures for the dialectical movement of history, "replace[d] the motion picture with the magic lantern, movement with a succession of immobilities
  • 26
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    • Jean-Paul Sartre répond
    • L'Arc 30, October 1966, Trans. E. Paras, in Paras
    • Jean-Paul Sartre, "Jean-Paul Sartre répond," L'Arc 30, October 1966, p. 87, Trans. E. Paras, in Paras, Foucault 2.0, p. 30)
    • Foucault 2.0 , pp. 87
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  • 28
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    • note
    • In this interview Foucault emphasizes that his project in The Order of Things was to explain the epistemic transformations necessary in order for discursive ruptures to take place; that is, precisely an attempt to "resolve" the "problem" of discontinuity
  • 29
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    • Politics and the Study of Discourse
    • Trans. C. Gordon, in Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter Miller, eds, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • Michel Foucault, "Politics and the Study of Discourse," Trans. C. Gordon, in Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 58-9
    • (1991) The Foucault Effect: Studies In Governmentality , pp. 58-59
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    • note
    • For an interesting and sensitive discussion of Foucault's historical method which likewise dispels "certain preconceived notions about the philosopher," chief among them the belief that "[Foucault] privileges breaks and structures over continuities and evolutions
  • 32
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    • note
    • I am grateful for Bonnie Honig for emphasizing to me the religious inflections of some of these readings-Foucault as prodigal son, Foucault as recusant sinner, Foucault as death-bed convert-which all seek to position Foucault in a certain way towards a liberal thinking of human rights (and in which Foucault returns to the liberal fold). These religious narratives are all matched, or opposed, by another set of readings-embedded in the same texts-which betray a rather more erotic subtext. According to these readings, Foucault is first seduced, then begins to flirt, and then finally embraces human rights. Both ways of reading Foucault's late work-as recanting and return, or as consummation-are underpinned by a similar teleologic in which a liberal thinking of human rights emerges as the conclusion to Foucault's thought.
  • 35
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    • The History of Sexuality
    • Trans. C. Gordon et al
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    • Power/Knowledge , pp. 187
    • Foucault, M.1
  • 36
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    • note
    • This appears as a somewhat Marxian formula, which is ironic given Foucault's oft-stated attempts to evade the truth/ideology dichotomy upon which he thought such thinking wrongly relied. For example
  • 37
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    • Body/Power
    • Trans. C. Gordon et al
    • Michel Foucault, "Body/Power," Trans. C. Gordon et al, in Power/Knowledge, p. 58
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    • Two Lectures
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    • Michel Foucault, "Two Lectures," Trans C. Gordon et al, in Power/Knowledge, p. 108.
    • Power/Knowledge , pp. 108
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    • note
    • It seems to me that this criticism is only half accurate. It is one thing to argue through a political genealogy of rights that whilst their ideological presentation is as a principle of limitation upon state power they are in fact its logical support (as Foucault does in the above passage, and elsewhere in his work). For a reading of Hobbes and Locke along similar lines
  • 47
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    • note
    • It is quite another thing to argue (as I contend here that Foucault does not, given his later interventions) that rights are utterly determined, and their political potential exhausted, in this relation. Such a position is not Foucault's, and is much closer to Giorgio Agamben's critique of human rights. For example
  • 48
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    • Trans. Daniel Heller-Roazen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
    • Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, Trans. Daniel Heller-Roazen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 126-35.
    • (1998) Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life , pp. 126-135
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    • Kirstie McClure, "Taking Liberties in Foucault's Triangle: Sovereignty, Discipline, Governmentality, and the Subject of Rights," in Austin Sarat and Thomas R Kearns, eds., Identities, Politics, and Rights (Ann Arbour: University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 150-162.
    • (1995) Identities, Politics, and Rights , pp. 150-162
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    • After Foucault: A New Form of Right
    • Roger Mourad, "After Foucault: A New Form of Right," Philosophy & Social Criticism 29 (2003), p. 456.
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    • note
    • For an unsympathetic engagement with Foucault's stance on rights, which tries to construct a theory of rights from his call for a new form of right but which ultimately finds Foucault's project (as the author understands it) incoherent
  • 53
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    • The Risks of Security
    • Trans. R. Hurley et al, in James D. Faubion, ed., (New York: The New Press
    • Michel Foucault, "The Risks of Security," Trans. R. Hurley et al, in James D. Faubion, ed., Essential Works of Foucault 1954-1984, Vol 3: Power (New York: The New Press, 2000), p. 374.
    • (2000) Essential Works of Foucault 1954-1984, Vol 3: Power , pp. 374
    • Foucault, M.1
  • 54
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    • 'The 'Paradox' of Knowledge and Power: Reading Foucault on a Bias
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    • From Discipline to Flexibilization? Rereading Foucault in the Shadow of Globalization
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    • Letter to Certain Leaders of the Left
    • Trans. R. Hurley et al
    • Michel Foucault, "Letter to Certain Leaders of the Left," Trans. R. Hurley et al, in Essential Works of Foucault, Vol 3: Power, p. 427.
    • Essential Works of Foucault, Vol 3: Power , pp. 427
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    • Confronting Governments: Human Rights
    • Trans. R. Hurley et al
    • Michel Foucault, "Confronting Governments: Human Rights," Trans. R. Hurley et al, in Essential Works of Foucault, Vol 3: Power, pp. 474-475.
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    • The Moral and Social Experience of the Poles Can No Longer be Obliterated
    • Trans. R. Hurley et al
    • Michel Foucault, "The Moral and Social Experience of the Poles Can No Longer be Obliterated," Trans. R. Hurley et al, in Essential Works of Foucault, Vol 3: Power, pp. 469, 471-472.
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    • note
    • In The Use of Pleasure, Foucault addresses the problematization of sexual conduct in classical Greece, whereas The Care of the Self focuses upon these practices in Hellenistic, or late Antiquity. In the latter work, focusing on Stoic texts, Foucault discerns "a certain strengthening of austerity themes" (p. 235) which separates late Antiquity from Classical Greece in regards to the problematization of sexual pleasure, but he nevertheless does not read this heightened austerity as a simple historical precursor of Christian ethics. There remains a great divide between ancient and Christian modes of subjectification
    • The Use of Pleasure , pp. 235
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    • On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress
    • in Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • Michel Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress," in Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 237-238.
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    • What follows is taken from Foucault,
    • What follows is taken from Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics," pp. 238-243.
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    • note
    • As is well known, Foucault's work has been quite properly the subject of much feminist criticism, and his later work on ethics and critique is perhaps more suspect on these grounds than some of his earlier genealogical investigations. For a useful collection of essays on the late work from a feminist viewpoint
  • 82
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    • Dianna Taylor and Karen Vintges, eds., Feminism and the Final Foucault (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2004).
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    • Dews is the classic reference point for these arguments. His
    • Dews is the classic reference point for these arguments. His "The Return of the Subject in Late Foucault," Radical Philosophy 51 (1989), p. 37
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    • Like Dews, José Guilherme Merquior perceives a shift in Foucault's late work from a conception of subjectivity as a "dependent variable (historical product of power)" to an "independent variable
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    • J.G. Merquior, Foucault (London: Fontana, 1985), p. 138.
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    • To be fair to Paras, there are moments of equivocation where he discusses "a partially autonomous" and a "'partially self-constituting"' subject (Foucault 2.0, pp. 4-95), but the general trend of his exposition and analysis of Foucault's work is to argue (as references to "pre-discursive" subjects imply) a wholly unconditioned subject.
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    • note
    • As is implied by Paras's reference to Foucault's supposed denial of a "thinking subject" Even in the middle, or "power analytics," phase of his work, most conspicuously in Discipline and Punish and the first volume of the History of Sexuality, it would not be accurate to say that the subject was always acted upon and never acting. Indeed, it is central to Foucault's concept of "subjection" that the subject "becomes the principle of his own subjection
  • 97
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    • note
    • He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power; he makes them play spontaneously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes the principle of his own subjection'Thus, although at this point of his work Foucault underplays this aspect of subjection, there must necessarily be some ability on the part of the subject to integrate and bring to bear upon itself in some way the diverse demands of disciplinary power
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    • Foucault's Case: Subject and Subjection in Law
    • in Barry Smart, ed, London and New York: Routledge
    • Peter Fitzpatrick, "Foucault's Case: Subject and Subjection in Law," in Barry Smart, ed., Michel Foucault: Critical Assessments, vol. 7 (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 225.
    • (1995) Michel Foucault: Critical Assessments , vol.7 , pp. 225
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    • note
    • My point is that power and subjectivity do not stand in a relationship of inverse proportion in Foucault's work such that less power, or less powerful power, equals more subjectivity. Rather, subjectivity is always already bound up with power, and in fact one could say that an increase in power increases one's subjectivity in the sense of its endowing us with greater capacities. The most that this compels Foucault to accept by way of a founding subject is what Paul Patton calls "a 'thin' conception of the subject": a "being endowed with certain capacities. It is a subject of power, but this power is only Gilles Deleuze, Foucault, Trans. Seán Hand (London: Continuum, 1999), pp. 78-101.
    • (1999) Foucault , pp. 78-101
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    • Trans. J. Murphy and J. Khalfa (London and New York: Routledge
    • Michel Foucault, History of Madness, Trans. J. Murphy and J. Khalfa (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 485.
    • (2006) History of Madness , pp. 485
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    • Michel Foucault's Philosophy of Religion: An Introduction to the Non-Fascist Life
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    • James Bernauer, "Michel Foucault's Philosophy of Religion: an Introduction to the Non-Fascist Life," in James Bernauer and Jeremy Carrette, eds., Michel Foucault and Theology: The Politics of Religious Experience (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 87-88.
    • (2004) Michel Foucault and Theology: The Politics of Religious Experience , pp. 87-88
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    • The Order of Others: Is Foucault's Antihumanism Against Human Action?
    • Alexander E. Hooke, "The Order of Others: Is Foucault's Antihumanism Against Human Action?," Political Theory 15:1 (1987), p. 38
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    • For those to whom it appears as a "scandal" to question the human in the name of the more than human, Jacques Derrida observes that: "[T]o be suspicious about the limits of man is not to be anti-humanist, on the contrary, it's a way of respecting what remains 'to come,' under the name and the face of what we call 'man.' You have to be more and more human, and it's not obvious what it means. We are not human enough, we are never human enough, so from that point of view unconditional hospitality is not restricted by what one knows under the name of man or what is proper to man. We have to be hospitable to what is coming, and to a new figure, a new shape of what one calls humanity
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    • A Discussion with Jacques Derrida
    • Jacques Derrida, "A Discussion with Jacques Derrida," Theory & Event 5:1 (2001)
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    • Truth, Power, Self: An Interview
    • in Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman and Patrick H. Hutton, eds, Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press
    • Michel Foucault, Rux Martin, "Truth, Power, Self: An Interview," in Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman and Patrick H. Hutton, eds., Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault (Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), p. 15.
    • (1988) Technologies of The Self: A Seminar With Michel Foucault , pp. 15
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