Intersectionality, critical race theory, and American sporting oppression: Examining black and gay male athletes

Journal of Homosexuality

Volumn 57, Issue 8, 2010, Pages 949-967

  Anderson, Eric ^a   McCormack, Mark ^a  

^a University of Bath   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Critical race theory; Gay athletes; Intersectionality; Oppression; Race; Sport

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; ATHLETE; CAUCASIAN; ETHNOLOGY; HOMOSEXUALITY; HUMAN; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL STIGMA;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; ATHLETES; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; HOMOSEXUALITY, MALE; HUMANS; MALE; PREJUDICE; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SOCIAL STIGMA;

EID: 77956319213     PISSN: 00918369     EISSN: 15403602     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2010.503502     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Abes, E. S., Jones, S. R., & McEwan, M. K. (2007). Reconceptualizing the model of multiple dimensions of identity: The role of meaning-making capacity in the construction of multiple identities. Journal of College Student Development, 48(1), 1-22.
2. Adams, A., Anderson, E., & McCormack, M. (2010). Establishing and challenging masculinity: The influence of gendered discourses in organized sport. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29(3), 278-300.
3. Adams, M. L. (1993). To be an ordinary hero: Male figure skaters and the ideology of gender. In T. Haddad (Ed.), Men and masculinities (pp. 163-181). Toronto: Canadian School Press.
4. Alexander, L. D. (2006). Race on first, class on second, gender on third, and sexexuality up to bat: Intersectionality and power in major league baseball, 1995-2005. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Bowling Green State University, Ohio.
5. Anderson, E. (2000). Trailblazing: The true story of America's first openly gay high school coach. Los Angeles: Alyson Press.
6. Anderson, E. (2002) Gays in sport: Contesting hegemonic masculinity in a homophobic environment. Gender & Society, 16(6), 860-877.
7. Anderson, E. (2005). In the game: Gay athletes and the cult of masculinity. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
8. Anderson, E. (2008) "Being masculine is not about who you sleep with. " Heterosexual athletes contesting masculinity and the one-time rule of homosexuality. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 58(1-2), 104-115.
9. Anderson, E. (2009). Inclusive masculinity: The changing nature of masculinities. London: Routledge.
10. Anderson, E., & McCormack, M. (2010). Comparing the Black and gay male athlete: Patterns in American oppression. Journal of Men's Studies, 18(2), 145-158.
11. Anderson, E. & McGuire, R. (2010). Inclusive Masculinity and the gendered politics of men's rugby. Journal of Gender Studies, 19(3), 249-261.
12. Andrews, D. L. (1996). The fact(s) of Michael Jordan's blackness: Excavating a floating racial signifier. Sociology of Sport Journal, 13, 125-158.
13. Angelou, M. (1995). The complete collected poems. New York: Virago Press.
14. Bell, D. A. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The permanence of racism. New York: Basic.
15. Bell, D. A. (1995). Racial realism. In K.W. Crenshaw, N. Gotanda, G. Peller, & K. Thomas (Eds.), Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement (pp. 27-39). New York: The New Press.
16. Bernal, D. D. (2002). Critical race theory, Latino critical theory, and critical racedgendered epistemologies: Recognizing students of color as holder and creators of knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 105-126.
17. Bernstein, M. (2005). Identity politics. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 47-74.
18. Birrell, S. (1990). Double fault: Renee Richards and the construction and naturalization of difference. Sociology of Sport Journal, 7, 1-21.
19. Boykin, K. (2005). Beyond the down low: Sex, lies, and denial in Black America. New York: Carroll, & Graf.
20. Bridel, W., & Rail, G. (2007). Sport, sexuality, and the production of (resistant) bodies: De-/re-constructing the meanings of gay male marathon corporeality. Sociology of Sport Journal, 24, 127-144.
21. Britton, D. M, & Williams, C. (1995). "Don't ask, don't tell, don't pursue": Military policy and the construction of heterosexual masculinity. Journal of Homosexuality, 30(1), 1-21.
22. Bruce, T. (2004). Marking the boundaries of the "normal" in televised sports: The play by play of race. Media, Culture, & Society, 26, 861-879.
23. Bulmer, M., & Solomos, J. (Eds.). (2004). Researching race and racism. London: Routledge.
24. Burstyn, V. (1999). The rites of men: Manhood, politics and the culture of sports. University of Toronto Press.
25. Carrington, B. (1998). Sport, masculinity and Black cultural resistance. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 22, 275-298.
26. Carrington, B. (2007). Merely identity: Cultural identity and politics of sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 24, 49-66.
27. Carrington, B., & McDonald, I. (2002). Sport, racism and inequality. Sociology Review, 11, 8-11.
28. Caudwell, J. (Ed.). (2006). Queer theory and sport. London: Routledge.
29. Cindrich, R. (1999). Campos market research. [Available only by permission of Cindrich].
30. Coakley, J. (2002). Sport in society: Issues and controversies (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
31. Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
32. Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
33. Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Berkley: University of California Press.
34. Cosgrove, A., & Bruce, T. (2005). "The way New Zealanders would like to see themselves": Reading White masculinity via media coverage of the death of sir Peter Blake. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22, 336-355.
35. Crawley, S. L., Foley, L. J., & Shehan, C. L. (2008). Gendering bodies. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
36. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimiatnion doctrine, feminsit theory, and antiracist poicits. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139-167.
37. Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241-1299.
38. Crosset, T. (1990). Masculinity, sexuality, and the development of early modern sport. In M. A. Messner, & D. Sabo (Eds.), Sport, men and the gender order: Critical feminist perspectives (pp. 45-54). Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.
39. Davis, A. (1981). Women, race, and class. New York: Random House.
40. Denison, J., & Markula, P. (2005). The press conference as performance: Representing Haile Gebrselassie. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22, 311-335.
41. Delgado, R. (1995). Critical race theory: The cutting edge. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
42. Douglas, D. D. (2002).To be young, gifted, Black and female: A meditation on the cultural politics at play in representations of Venus and SerenaWilliams. Sociology of Sport Online, 5(2). Retrieved April 18, 2008, from http://www.physed.otago.ac.nz/sosol/v5i2/v5i2_3.html.
43. Douglas, D. D. (2005). Venus, Serena, and the Women's Tennis Association: When and where "race" enters. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22, 256-282.
44. Eastman, S. T., & Billings, A. C. (2001). Biased voices of sports: Racial and gender stereotyping in college basketball announcing. Howard Journal of Communications, 12, 183-201.
45. Eitzen, D. S. (2003). Fair and foul: Beyond the myths and paradoxes of sport (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Rowman, & Littlefield.
46. Entine, J. (2001). Taboo: Why Black athletes dominate sports and why we're afraid to talk about it. New York: Public Affairs.
47. Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Complete psychological works (vol. 7). London: Hogarth.
48. Froyum, C. M. (2007). "At least I'm not gay": Heterosexual identity making among poor Black teens. Sexualities, 10, 603-622.
49. Gabriel, J. (1998). Whitewash: Racialized politics and the media. London: Routledge.
50. Glenn, E. N. (1985). Racial ethnic women's labor: The intersection of race, gender and class oppression. Review of Radical Political Economics, 17(3), 86-108.
51. Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets: Lesbians and homophobia in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
52. Hall, S. (1981). The whites of their eyes. In G. Bridges, & R. Brunt (Eds.), Silver linings (pp. 23-38). London: Lawrence and Wishart.
53. Hancock, A. M. (2007). When multiplication doesn't equal quick addition: Examining intersectionality as a research paradigm. Perspectives on Politics, 5, 63-79.
54. Hanson, S. L. (2005). Hidden dragons: Asian American women and sport. Journal of Sport, & Social Issues, 29, 279-312.
55. Harris, O. (2000). African American predominance in sport. In D. Brooks & R. Althouse (Eds.), Racism in college athletics: The African American athlete's experience (pp. 37-52). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
56. Hastings, D. W., Zahran, S., & Cable, S. (2006). Drowning in inequalities: Swimming and social justice. Journal of Black Studies, 36, 894-917.
57. Hekma, G. (1998). As long as they don't make an issue out of it: Gay men and lesbians in organized sports in the Netherlands. Journal of Homosexuality, 35, 1-23.
58. Herek, G. (1998). Psychological heterosexism and anti-gay violence: The social psychology of bigotry and bashing. In M. Kimmel, & M. A. Messner (Eds.), Men's lives (pp. 254-256). Boston: Allyn, & Bacon.
59. Hoberman, J. (1997). Darwin's athletes: How sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
60. Hoberman, J. (2000). The price of "Black dominance." Society, 37(3), 49-56.
61. hooks, b. (1984). Feminist theory: From margin to center. New York: Cassell.
62. hooks, b. (1990). Yearning: Race, gender and cultural politics. Boston: South End Press.
63. hooks, b. (1992). Black looks: Race and representation. Boston: South End Press.
64. Hylton, K. (2005). "Race", sport and leisure: Lessons from critical race theory. Leisure Studies, 24, 81-98.
65. Jarvie, G. (1991). Sport, racism and ethnicity. London: Falmer Press.
66. Kian, E., & Anderson, E. (2009). John Amaechi: Changing the way sport reporters examine gay athletes. Journal of Homosexuality, 56(7), 1-20.
67. Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod, & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 33-47). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
68. King, C. (2004). Offside racism: Playing the White man. Oxford: Berg.
69. Lane, A. J. (1994). Black bodies/gay bodies: The politics of race in the gay/military battle. Callaloo, 17, 1074-1088.
70. Loewenberg, B. J., & Bogin, R. (1976). Black women in nineteenth-century American life. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
71. Loftus, J. (2001). America's liberalization in attitudes toward homosexuality, 1973 to 1998. American Sociological Review, 66, 762-782.
72. Logan, R. W. (1957). The Negro in the United States. Princeton, NJ: D.Van Nostrand.
73. Luthra, M. (1997). Britain's Black population: Social change, public policy and agenda. Aldershot, UK: Arena.
74. Majors, R. (1990). Cool pose: Black masculinity in sports. In M. A. Messner & D. Sabo (Eds.), Sport, men and the gender order: Critical feminist perspectives (pp. 10-115). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
75. MacKinnon, C. A. (2006). Are women human?: And other international dialogues. London: Harvard University Press.
76. Markula, P. H., & Pringle, R. (2006). Foucault, sport and exercise: Power, knowledge and transforming the self. London: Routledge.
77. McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30, 1771-1800.
78. McCarthy, D., Jones, R. L., & Potrac, P. (2003). Constructing images and interpreting realities: The case of the Black soccer player on television. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38, 217-238.
79. McCormack, M. (2010). The declining significance of homohysteria for male students in three sixth forms in the south of England. British Educational Research Journal, iFirst, 1-17.
80. McIntosh, P. (2004). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. In M. L. Andersen & P. H. Collins (Eds.), Race, class and gender (pp. 103-108). London: Thomson/Wadsworth.
81. Messner, M. A. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press.
82. Messner, M. A., & Sabo, D. (1990). Sport, men and the gender order: Critical feminist perspectives. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
83. Moraga, C. (1983). Loving in the war years. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
84. Moynihan, D. P. (1965). The Negro family: Case for national action. Washington, DC: Labor Department, Office of Policy Planning and Research.
85. Murrell, A. J., & Curtis, E. M. (1994). Causal attributions of performance for Black and White quarterbacks in the NFL: A look at the sports pages. Journal of Sport, & Social Issues, 18, 224-233.
86. Myrdal, G. (1944). An American dilemma: The Negro problem and modern democracy. New York: Harper and Row.
87. Nylund, D. (2007). Beer, babes, and balls: Masculinity and sports talk radio. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
88. Pharr, S. (1997). Homophobia: A weapon of sexism. Berkeley, CA: Chardon Press.
89. Price, N., & Parker, A. (2003). Sport, sexuality and the gender order: Amateur rugby union, gay men, and social exclusion. Sociology of Sport Journal, 20, 108-126.
90. Pronger, B. (1990). The arena of masculinity: Sports, homosexuality, and the meaning of sex. New York: St Martin's Press.
91. Rasmussen, R., Esgate, A., & Turner, D. (2005). On your marks, get stereotyped, go!: Novice coaches and Black stereotypes in sprinting. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 29, 426-436.
92. Rimer, E. (1996). Discrimination in major league baseball: Hiring standards for major league managers, 1975-1994. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 20, 118-33.
93. Russell, K. (2007). "Queers, even in netball?": Interpretations of the lesbian label among sportswomen. In C. C. Aitchison (Ed.), Sport and gender identities: Masculinities, femininities and sexualities (pp. 106-121). New York: Routledge.
94. Russell, S. T, & Joyner, K. (2001) Adolescent sexual orientation and suicide risk: Evidence from a national study. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1276-1281.
95. Sandoval, C. (1991). U.S. third world feminism: The theory and method of oppositional consciousness in the postmodern world. Genders, 10, 1-24.
96. Schneider, J. J., & Eitzen, D. S. (1986). Racial segregation by professional football positions, 1960-1985. Sport Science Review, 70, 259-262.
97. Shropshire, K. (1996). In Black and White: Race and sports in America. Albany, NY: New York University Press.
98. Siegel, D., & Epstein, J. (1996). Ethnic-racial differences in psychological stress related to gay lifestyle among HIV positive men. Psychological Reports, 79, 303-312.
99. Singer, J. N. (2005). Addressing epistemological racism in sport management research. Journal of Sport Management, 19, 464-479.
100. Smith, B. (Ed.). (1983). Home girls: A Black feminist anthology. New York: Kitchen Table/Women of Color Press.
101. Smith, E. (2000). Stacking in the team sport of intercollegiate baseball. In D. Brooks & R. Althouse. (Eds.), Racism in college athletics: the African American athlete's experience (pp. 65-84). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
102. Smith, M. J. (1999). Black men/White men: Afro-American gay life, & culture. San Francisco: Gay Sunshine Press.
103. Solaranzo, D., & Yosso, T. (2001). Critical race and latcrit theory and method: Counter-storytelling. Qualitative Studies in Education, 14, 471-495.
104. Southall, R., Anderson, E., Coleman, F., & Nagel, M. (2009). An investigation of the relationship between college athletes' gender and sexual-orientation attitudes. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 2, 62-77.
105. Spencer, C. (1995). Homosexuality in history. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.
106. Spracklen, K., Hylton, K., & Long, J. (2006). Managing and monitoring equality and diversity in UK sport: An evaluation of the sporting equals racial equality standard and its impact on organisational change. Journal of Sport, & Social Issues, 30, 289-305.
107. Valdes, F., McCristal, C., & Harris, A. (Eds.). (2002). Crossroads, directions, and a new critical race theory. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
108. Van Sterkenburg, J., & Knoppers, A. (2004). Dominant discourses about race/ethnicity and gender in sport practice and performance. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 39, 301-321.
109. Waitt, G. (2003). Gay games: Performing "community" out from the closet of the locker room. Social, & Cultural Geography, 4(2), 167-183.
110. Walker, M. A. (2005). Black coaches are ready, willing. and still waiting: By all accounts, there is no shortage of qualified Black coaches to lead Division I teams, so why are there so few? Black Issues in Higher Education, 22(6), 26-30.
111. Wiggins, D. K. (1977). Good times on the old plantation: Popular recreations of the Black slave in Antebellum South, 1810-1860. Journal of Sport History, 7(2), 21-39.
112. Wiggins, D. K. (1980a). The play of slave children in plantation communities of the Old South, 1820-1860. Journal of Sport History, 7(2), 21-39.
113. Wiggins, D. K. (1980b). Sport and popular pastimes: Shadow of the slave quarters. Canadian Journal of History of Sport and Physical Education, 11(1), 61-68.
114. Wilson, W. J. (1978). The declining significance of race: Blacks and changing American institutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
115. Zerai, A. (2000). Agents of knowledge and action: Selected Africana scholars and their contributions to the understanding of race, class and gender intersectionality. Cultural Dynamics, 12, 182-222.