Shopping in the public realm: A law of place

Journal of Law and Society

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 412-441

  Layard, Antonia ^a  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77956279842     PISSN: 0263323X     EISSN: 14676478     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6478.2010.00513.x     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. I am very grateful to David Mowatt for telling me of his experience and clarifying some aspects of Quaker history and practice in Bristol: see .
2. H. Brown and P. Harris, Bristol England: City of a Thousand Years (1964) 26, 82, 106.
3. Bristol City Council, Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Bristol (2004).
4. 'BT looks at those buildings which were saved from the bulldozer' ristol Evening Post, 9 February 2009.
5. Including, but not limited to: D. Mitchell, The right to the city: Social justice and the fight for public space (2003)
6. L. Staeheli and D. Mitchell, The People's Property? Power, Politics and the Public (2007)
7. N. Blomley, Law, Space and the Geographies of Power (1994); A. Amin and N. Thrift, Cities: Reimagining the Urban (2002)
8. A. Philippopoulos-Mihalopoulos (ed.), Law and the City (2009)
9. D. Cooper, Governing Out of Order: Space, Law and the Politics of Belonging (1998)
10. D. Harvey, Social Justice and the City (1973
11. B. de Sousa Santos, 'Law, State and Urban Struggles in Recife, Brazil', 1 Social & Legal Studies (1992) 235-55.
12. Multiple literatures here include M. de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life (1984); D. Massey, For Space (2005); D. Harvey, Justice, Nature & the Geography of Difference (1986); J. Allen, D. Massey, and A. Cochrane, Rethinking the Region (1998); T. Cresswell, In/Out of Place (1996).
13. F. Tibbalds, borrowing from Douglas Adams's Hitchhikers Guide to the Universe, '"Places" matter most' in Public Space: The Management Dimension, eds. M. Carmona et al. (2008) 34.
14. Urban Task Force, Towards an Urban Renaissance (1999) 71.
15. J. Rouse, evidence to the Select Committee on Transport, Local Government and the Regions, Third Report, Public Spaces: The Role of PPG 17 in the Urban Renaissance, Minutes of Evidence, HC (2001-02) 238-III, 384-399, at 386.
16. F. Tibbalds, 'Places matter most' in Urban Design Reader, eds. M. Carmona and S. Tiesdell (2007) 9; Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), Our Towns and Cities: The Future - Delivering an Urban Renaissance (2000); Department of Communties and Local Government (DCLG), Transforming Places; Changing Lives: Taking Forward the Regeneration Framework (2009); HM Government, World class places: The Government's strategy for improving quality of place (2009); DCLG, Preparing Design Codes: A Practice Manual (2006) 66; Department of the Environment (DoE), Managing Urban Spaces in Town Centres: Good Practice Guide (1997); DCLG, Planning for Town Centres: Guidance on Design and Implementation Tools (2005); DCLG, Planning Policy Statement 6: Planning for Town Centres (2005).
17. de Certeau, op. cit., n. 6, p. 117.
18. Y.F. Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (1997).
19. E. Carter, J. Donald, and J. Squires, Space and Place: Theories of Identities and Location (1993) xii. This argument is contested by a significant academic community including, notably, Massey, op. cit., n. 6.
20. 'The Circus Come to Town' Retail Week, 3 October 2008.
21. 'Hard Sell' Guardian, 24 October 2008.
22. A. Kirby, 'The production of private space and its implications for urban social relations' (2008) 27 Political Geography 74, 91.
23. Paul Davis & Partners (Architects), 'How an historic brand adds value to urban regeneration' available at .
24. E. McCann, 'Race, Protest and Public Space: Contextualising Lefebvre in the U.S. City' (1999) 31 Antipode 163, 164.
25. H. Lefebvre, The Production of Space, tr. D. Nicholson-Smith (1991) 40.
26. C. Butler, 'Critical Legal Studies and the Politics of Space' (2009) 18 Social & Legal Studies 313, 315.
27. Z. Bauman, Liquid Modernity (2000).
28. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM), Making it happen: Urban renaissance and prosperity in our Core Cities - A Tale of Eight Cities (2004); ODPM, Our Cities Are Back: Competitive Cities Make Prosperous Regions and Sustainable Communities - Third Report of the Core Cities Working Group (2004).
29. Land Securities and Hammerson.
30. 'Top developers in alliance to expand Bristol's Broadmead' Retail Week, 29 September 2000.
31. Application 02/02929/P/C (relating to parts A and C of the master plan, the street blocks around Penn St. and Newfoundland/Bond St. and the street block around Tollgate House and River St., respectively).
32. The Secretary of State must consider whether to review (call in) the grant of planning permission. This was required by Circular 15/93 Town and Country Planning (Shopping Directions) England and Wales, no. 2 Directions 1993, now replaced by Circular 02/09: The Town and Country Planning (Consultation) (England) Direction 2009.
33. Planning gain agreements are concluded under s. 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA) 1990. They encapsulate the benefits the local authority has been able to negotiate 'in return' for the planning permission, for example, affordable housing, landscaping or highways provision.
34. Broadmead Expansion, Bristol Compulsory Purchase Order 2003. The CPO was confirmed by central government in 2005.
35. Stopping-up of Highways (City of Bristol) (No SW4) Order 2003.
36. See, for example, Land Registry BL107690 for Plot 16, Broadmead, BL107694 Quakers Friars Building, and BL108634, main retail area and adjoining land Cabot Circus, Bristol.
37. This followed an acrimonious local debate after the developer's initial decision to call the area 'Merchant's Quarter', which offended a wide range of residents given Bristol's historic association with slavery: 'History behind' Bristol Evening Post, 29 November 2006.
38. 'Cabot Circus wins best shopping centre award' Bristol Evening Post, 6 December 2008.
39. See 02/04493/F/C (relating to Part B of the masterplan, the street block around Quakers Friars), Application 05/01282/F, and Stopping Up order for Quakers Friars.
40. 'Thumbs up for 500m Shops Plan' Bristol Evening Post, 8 May 2001.
41. 'Broadmead's bright plans to revitalise Bristol's biggest shopping centre have moved a step forward' Bristol Evening Post, 8 August 2002.
42. This conceptualization is a key feature of actor-network-feature, explored in the legal context by M. Valverde, 'Taking Land Use Seriously: Toward an Ontology of Municipal Law' (2005) 9 Law Text Culture 34, and H. Carr and D. Cowan, 'Actor-network Theory, Implementation, and the Private Landlord' (2008) 35 J. of Law and Society 149.
43. The lynchpins of planning law are sections 55 and 57 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990.
44. V. Nadin, 'The emergence of the spatial planning approach in England' (2007) 22 Planning Practice and Research 43, at 43.
45. M. Derek and R. Jacques, 'Influencing the Development of European Spatial Development' in European Spatial Planning, ed. A. Faludi (2002) 46; G. Giannakouro, 'The Europeanisation of National Spatial Planning Policies' in The Progress of European Spatial Planning, eds. C. Bengs and K. Bohme (1998) 30.
46. N. Gallent, 'Strategic-Local Tensions and the Spatial Planning Approach in England' (2008) 9 Planning Theory & Practice 307, 309; DCLG, PPS 12: Creating strong safe and prosperous communities through Local Spatial Planning (2008).
47. For example, ODPM, PPS 6: Planning for Town Centres (2005) 30; DCLG, PPS 3: Housing (2006).
48. R (on the application of Littlewood) v. Bassetlaw DC [2009] Env.L.R. 21.
49. G. Wright, 'Masterplanning - visions and parameters' (2003) 31 J. of Planning and Environment Law 27, at 33.
50. B. de Sousa Santos, 'Law a Map of Misreading: Towards a Postmodern Conception of Law' (1987) 14 J. of Law and Society 279, at 283.
51. Wright, op. cit., n. 43, p. 33.
52. '400m revamp for city shops' Western Daily Press, 2 February 2001.
53. 'Thumbs Up for 500m Shops Plan' Bristol Evening Post, 8 May 2001.
54. 'New look at 500m scheme for shops' Bristol Evening Post, 21 April 2001.
55. 'Broadmead's bright' Bristol Evening Post, 8 August 2002.
56. Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure) Order 1995/419, Article 8, provides for a minimum of 21 days. Some site notices were erected to allow a few extra days, though the consultation period ran from August to September, over much of the school summer holidays.
57. 'Waiting with bated breath' Estates Gazette, 17 May 2003.
58. 'Trust me, I'm an architect' Bristol Evening Post, 4 July 2007; 'Extension of Broadmead would jam city traffic' Bristol Evening Post, 14 December 2002.
59. 'Alliance's funding plea' Bristol Evening Post, 8 August 2003; 'Protesters Call For Broadmead Delay' Bristol Evening Post, 20 December 2002.
60. Through their subsidiary Northcliffe Media. This group also owns all of Bristol's other newspapers: the Western Daily Press, Metro (free), Bristol Observer (free), and Venue.
61. 'City Centre Planning Needs Mailing' Western Daily Press, 10 September 2002.
62. Regina v. Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, [2003] 2 AC 295.
63. Acquisition of Land Act 1981.
64. Land Compensation Act 1961.
65. s. 226(5) TCPA 1990.
66. James v. United Kingdom (1986) 8 E.H.R.R. 123, 40.
67. Law Commission, Towards a Compulsory Purchase Code: (1) Compensation, Consultation Paper no. 165 (2002) 98.
68. G. Sector, 'Planning for the 21st century - Part 2' [2004] New Law J. 154.7152(1697).
69. Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004, s. 99.
70. DTLR, Compulsory Purchase and Compensation: Delivering a fundamental change (2001) Appendix, para. 1.9.
71. DETR, Fundamental Review of the Laws and Procedures Relating to Compulsory Purchase and Compensation: Final Report (2000) Appendix, para 1.4.
72. Urban Task Force, op. cit., n. 8.
73. DETR, op. cit., n. 10.
74. Waters v. Welsh Development Agency [2004] 2 All E.R. 915, 915.
75. Kelo v. New London 545 U.S. 469 (2005).
76. 'CPOs in sight for 37-acre Bristol Alliance scheme' Estates Gazette, 12 February 2005.
77. Ridgeland Properties v. Bristol City Council [2009] UKUT 102 (LC).
78. Bristol City Council, Central Support Services Sub Committee Report of the Director of Central Support Services, 18 December 2002.
79. Provision for stopping up also exists under s. 118 of the Highways Act 1980 (which is not premised on the requirement of planning permission but on a finding that the highway is (a) unnecessary or (b) can be diverted so as to make it nearer or more commodious to the public).
80. D. Farrand, 'More than a mere road' Estates Gazette, 18 October 2008, 2.
81. As a result (for instance) of dedication under s. 38 of the Highways Act 1980.
82. Vasiliou v. Secretary of State for Transport (1991) 61 P. & C.R. 507, TCPA 1971 s. 209(1).
83. P. Kingsnorth, Real England: the Battle Against the Bland (2008) 181, at 196.
84. A. Madanipour, Public and Private Spaces of the City (2003) 189.
85. Harvey, op. cit., n. 6, p. 298.
86. 'Shopping centre openings propel city ranks' Retail Week, 27 January 2009.
87. 'Grosvenor Announces Improved Results for 2009', Grosvenor press release, 15 April 2010.
88. Land Securities, Land Securities Annual Report 2009 (2009) 39.
89. S. Tiesdell and P. Allmendinger, 'The New Right and Neigbourhood Regeneration' (2001) 16 Housing Studies 311; P. Loftman and B. Nevin, 'Prestige Projects and Urban Regeneration in the 1980s and 1990s: a review of benefits and limitations' (1995) 10 Planning Practice and Research 299.
90. J. Punter, 'Design-led regeneration? Evaluating the design outcomes of Cardiff Bay and their implications for future regeneration' (2007) 12 J. of Urban Design 375, at 375.
91. For a recent legal example, see R (on the application of Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust) v. Thurrock Thames Gateway Development Corporation [2009] EWCA 29.
92. N. Blomley, 'Legal Geographies - Kelo, Contradiction and Capitalism' (2007) 28 Urban Geography 198, at 201.
93. I. Somin, Robin Hood in Reverse. The Case against Economic Development Takings, Policy Analysis series no. 535 (2005), cited by S. Crow, 'Compulsory purchase for economic development: an international perspective' (2007) J. of Planning & Environment Law 1102, at 1104.
94. Massey, op. cit., n. 6, p. 64; N. Blomley, 'Flowers in the bathtub: boundary crossings at the public-private divide' (2005) 36 Geoforum 281; and see Walker LJ in Skerritts of Nottingham Ltd v. Secretary of State [2001] Q.B. 59, 67.
95. J. Waldron, 'Homelessness and the Issue of Freedom' (1991) 39 UCLA Law Rev. 295, at 296.
96. DPP v. Jones [1999] 2 AC 240.
97. id. at p. 254 per Lord Irvine.
98. Hubbard v. Pitt [1976] Q.B. 142, Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints v. Price [2004] EWHC 3245.
99. Jones, op. cit., n. 91, p. 268.
100. R. Post, 'Between Management and Governance: The History and Theory of the Public Forum' (1987) 34 UCLA Law Rev. 1713.
101. Hague v. CIO 307 U.S. 496 (1939) at 515-16.
102. T. Zick, 'Space, Place and Speech: The Expressive Topography' (2005-06) 74 George Washington Law Rev. 439.
103. Under s. 132 Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, R (on the application of Haw) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2006] Q.B. 780, more recently see Hall and Haw et al. v. Mayor of London [2010] EWCA Civ 817.
104. (2002) 146 S.J.L.B. 221.
105. Though the two are closely related, see M. Valverde, 'Police science, British style: pub licensing and knowledges of urban disorder' (2003) 32 Economy and Society 234.
106. per Lord Camden CJ in Entick v. Carrington (1765) 19 How. St. Tr. 1029, 1066.
107. per Scrutton LJ in The Calgarth [1927] P 93, 110.
108. K. Gray and SF. Gray, Elements of Land Law (2008, 5th edn.) 1261. For an extensive and erudite exposition of the law, see ch. 10.
109. With one exception: Raymond Blanc, the owner of the Brasserie Blanc, insisted that his diners be able to smoke on his 'outdoor dining terrace' ('No Smoking at Cabot Circus' Bristol Evening Post, 30 September 2008).
110. 'Cabot Circus takes softly, softly approach to smokers' Bristol Evening Post, 29 September 2008.
111. 'Broadmead's £11m facelift ready for Valentine's day' Bristol Evening Post, 10 February 2009.
112. 'Cabot Circus photograph security ridiculous' Bristol Evening Post, 6 May 2009.
113. 'Gaza protesters lie "dead" in Bristol shop doorways' Bristol Evening Post, 19 January 2009. See . 109
114. M. Voyce, 'Shopping Malls in Australia: The end of public space and the rise of "consumerist citizenship"?' (2006) 42 J. of Sociology 269, at 282.
115. H. Lefebvre, 'Space and the State', excerpted in N. Brenner, State/Space: A Reader (2003) 85.
116. Anti-social Behaviour Act, Part 4 (ss. 30-36).
117. A. Bottomley, and N. Moore, 'From Walls to Membranes: Fortress Polis and the Governance of Urban Public Space in 21st Century Britain' (2007) 18 Law & Critique 171, at 194.
118. C. Norris and M. McCahill, 'CCTV: beyond penal modernism?' (2006) 46 Brit. J. of Criminology 97-118.
119. In Bristol, the first Broadmead BID was one of the 22 pilot projects supported by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister in 2003 and was subsidized by a £250,000 grant from the South West Regional Development Agency. Broadmead ratepayers have implemented two successive BIDs, funding the upgrading and improvement of the street architecture and retail environment, linking it to but also differentiating it from Cabot Circus and Quakers Friars.
120. A. Minton, The Privatisation of Public Space (2006) See .
121. Compare Macpherson who interpreted public property as 'corporate private property': see 'The Meaning of Property' in C. Macpherson, Property: Mainstream and Critical Positions (1978) 5.
122. D. Feldman, 'Property and Public Protest' in Property and Protection: Essays in Honour of Brian Harvey, eds. F. Meisel and P. Cook (2000) 31; Cinnamond v. British Airports Authority [1980] 1 W.L.R. 582, 591; R. v. Brent LBC, ex parte Assegai (1987) 151 LGR 891; Leicester CC v. Wheeler [1985] AC 1054, 1065; Wandsworth LBC v. A [2000] 1 W.L.R. 1246, 1255; R v. Wear Valley District Council, ex parte Binks [1985] 2 All E.R. 699.
123. Fewings v. Somerset County Council [1995] 1 All E.R. 513, 524. 120 R v. Somerset County Council ex p. Fewings [1995] 1 W.L.R. 1037, and see R. v. Sefton MBC ex p. British Association of Shooting & Conservation Ltd [2001] Env. L.R. 10. A distinction might be drawn between the Crown and local authorities in this context, see R. v. Secretary of State for Health [2000] H.R.L.R. 400.
124. Tabernacle v. Secretary of State for Defence [2009] EWCA Civ 23.
125. G. Nardell, 'The Quantock hounds and the Trojan horse' [1995] Public Law 27.
126. In housing, there has historically been some suggestion that public housing is to be managed and governed in a different way from private, 'social' housing, see D. Cowan and M. McDermot, Regulating Social Housing: Governing Decline (2006) 48-57.
127. There is a long line of cases holding that parks are held on public trust: see Hall v. Beckenham Corpn [1949] 1 K.B. 716; Waverley Borough Council v. Fletcher [1996] Q.B. 334 where the local authority, not the finder, were held to be the owner of the disputed brooch; The Churchwardens and Overseers of Lambeth Parish Appellants v. The London County Council Respondents [1897] AC 625.
128. Blake v. Hendon [1962] 1 Q.B. 283.
129. Jones, op. cit., n. 91, p. 268.
130. E. Fernandes, 'Constructing the "Right to the City" in Brazil' (2007) 16 Social & Legal Studies 201, at 208.
131. M. Purcell, 'Excavating Lefebvre: The right to the city and its urban politics of the inhabitant' (2002) 58 GeoJournal 99.
132. Available at .
133. Federal Law no. 10.257; Fernandes, op. cit., n. 127; N. Pindell, 'Finding a Right to the City: Exploring People and Community in Brazil and the United States' (2006) 39 Vanderbilt J. of Transnational Law 435. 131 Article II(3).
134. P. Marcuse, 'The Threat of Terrorism and "The Right to the City"' (2005) 32 Fordham Urban Law J. 767.
135. Mayor of London, A Manifesto for Public Space: London's Great Outdoors (2009) 8.
136. It seems that public by-laws cannot straightforwardly attach to private property, per Neuberger LJ, who suggested that by-laws affecting private land over which no highway ran might breach Article 1, Protocol 1 of the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights in the absence of appropriate compensation: R. (on the application of Richards) v. Pembrokeshire County Council [2004] EWCA 100 1000. Such incompatibility does not seem to be envisaged by s. 35 of the Highways Act 1980 which makes provision for by-laws concerning conduct and timing after the conclusion of a walkways agreement.
137. Minton, op. cit., n. 115.
138. CIN Properties Ltd v. Rawlins (1995) 69 P. & CR. D36. In 1997 the Court of Appeal's decision was unsuccessfully challenged: Mark Anderson and Others v. United Kingdom, Application No. 33689/96 [1998] E.H.R.L.R. 218.
139. S. Gray and K. Gray, 'Civil Rights, Civil Wrongs and Quasi-Public Space' [1999] E.H.R.L.R. 46, at 101; see, also, K. Gray and S. Gray, 'Private Property and Public Propriety' in Property and the Constitution, ed. J. McLean (1999) 15; Gray and Gray, op. cit., n. 102, p. 1330; A. Grear, 'A tale of the land, the insider, the outsider and human rights' (2006) 23 Legal Studies 33, at 50; J. Rowbottom, 'Property and participation: a right of access for expressive activities' [2005] E.H.R.L.R. 186.
140. In his dissent in Mark Anderson, Judge Maruste called for an acknowledgement that times have changed, and that public authorities should carry out a balancing interest, regulating 'how the privately owned forum publicum was to be used in the public interest': (2003) 37 E.H.R.R. 38 at para. 017, and see May LJ in Porter v. Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1999] All E.R. (D) 1129.
141. CIN, op. cit., n. 137.
142. Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 and Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009.
143. J. Wightman and N. Jackson, 'Spatial Dimensions of Private Law' in Current Legal Issues 2002: Law and Geography, eds. J. Holder and C. Harrison (2002) 35.
144. Llandudno Urban Council v. Woods [1899] 2 Ch 705, 709.
145. [1905] Ch 614, 622.
146. Regina (Beresford) v. Sunderland City Council [2004] AC 889 per Lord Walker.
147. Madanipour, op. cit., n. 78, p. 204.
148. C. Reich, 'The Individual Sector' (1991) 100 Yale Law J. 1409, at 1438; K. Gray, 'Equitable Property' (1994) 47 Current Legal Problems 157, at 175.
149. L. Staeheli and D. Mitchell, '"Don't Talk with Strangers": Regulating Property, Purifying the Public' (2008) 17 Griffith Law Rev. 531.
150. D. Mitchell, 'The End of Public Space? People's Park Definitions of the Public, and Democracy' (1995) 85 Annals of the Association of Am. Geographers 108
151. A. Minton, Ground Control: Fear and Happiness in the Twenty-First-Century City (2009).
152. R. Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (1974).
153. I. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990) 240.
154. D. Cooper, 'Regard between strangers: diversity, equality and the reconstruction of public space' (1998) 18 Critical Social Policy 465, at 473.
155. A. Millie, 'Anti-Social Behaviour, Behavioural Expectations and an Urban Aesthetic' (2008) 48 Brit. J. of Criminology 379-94.
156. J. Mitchell, 'What Public Presence? Access, Commons and Property Rights' (2008) 17 Social & Legal Studies 351.
157. Council of Europe, European Landscape Convention (2000) Art. 1(a).
158. N. Blomley, Unsettling the City: Urban Land and the Politics of Property (2003)
159. E. Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (2002)
160. J. Acheson, The Lobster Gangs of Maine (2004).
161. For a legal argument that is opening up, see Secretary of State for the Environment v. Meier [2009] 1 WLR 2780; Hall and Haw, op. cit., n. 97, and s. 384 of the Greater London Authority Act 1999.
162. Nor is compensation payable after the fact: compare Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council 505 US 1003 (1992) with Trailer & Marina (Leven) Ltd) v. Secretary of State for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [2005] 1 WLR 1267. This compares with property that is physically taken which is deemed to be an expropriation and so compensable and protected under Article 1, Protocol 1 of the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights.
163. T. Merrill, 'Property and the Right to Exclude' (1998) 77 Nebraska Law Rev. 730; T. Honoré, 'Ownership' in Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence (First Series), ed. A.G. Guest (1961).
164. K. Gray and S. Gray, 'The Idea of Property in Land' in Land Law: Themes and Perspectives, eds. S. Bright and J. Dewar (1998) 15.
165. J.W. Harris, Property and Justice (1996) 64.
166. As, for example, in planning law's Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) Order 1987/764.
167. A tentative attempt at such a distinction seems to be implicit in Judge LJ's judgment in Porter v. Commission of Police for the Metropolis 1999 WL 852129 (unreported).
168. Conservative Party, Invitation to Join the Government of Britain (2010).
169. D. Rowe, What are we scared of? (2005) 19.
170. R. Ellickson, 'Controlling Chronic Misconduct in City Spaces: Of Panhandlers, Skid Rows, and Public-Space Zoning' (1996) 105 Yale Law J. 1165.
171. For a Bristol example, see 'Thank goodness for the Christmas lights' Bristol Evening Post, 15 November 2008.
172. Rowe, op. cit., n. 164.
173. Lefebvre, op. cit., n. 19, p. 33.
174. de Certeau, op. cit., n. 6, p. 117.
175. I. Borden, 'A Performative Critique of the City: The Urban Practice of Skateboarding, 1958-1998' excerpted in City Cultures Reader, eds. M. Miles et al. (2003) 291.
176. I am very grateful to Tom Hayes for explaining flashmobbing to me.
177. .
178. .
179. A. Minton, 'These cities within cities are eating up Britain's streets' Guardian, 15 December 2009.
180. Lefebvre, op. cit., n. 110, p. 95.
181. Mitchell, op. cit., n. 5, p. 17.
182. Blomley, op. cit., n. 116, p. 5.
183. Tuan, op. cit., n. 12 and de Certeau, op. cit., n. 6.
184. Massey, op. cit., n. 6 and Cresswell, op. cit., n. 6.
185. Harvey, op. cit., n. 6, p. 291.