Philosophy of international law

Philosophy of International Law

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages

  Carty, Anthony ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

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References (297)

1. In L'Influence des sources sur l'unité et la fragmentation du droit international, ed. Rosario Huesa Vinaixa and Karel Wellens (2006) 239-49, reproduced with acknowledgment to Bruylant.
2. See in particular, Pierre-Marie Dupuy, in L'Influence des sources, ed. Huesa and Wellens, xviii, where he says doctrine should not indulge itself with questions of its own legitimacy, but get on with the technical task of making more intelligible the increasing complexity of positive law. Dupuy insists precisely that writers should confine themselves to the role of legal dogmatics, ignoring the much wider role of doctrine, which I have identified and indeed taken from a standard French dictionary of legal usage.
3. See further Karel Wellens, in L'Influence des sources, ed. Huesa and Wellens, 271, who insists that the vast majority of those present at the colloquium agree that the international lawyer functions necessarily within an existing international legal system. A small minority took the view that the jurist could afford to defend an anti-systemic phenomenology. This reference includes my friend and colleague Ignacio Forcada within the small minority of two.
4. Published a year later in the Leiden Journal of International Law 17, no. 2 (June 2004) 247-70, with acknowledgment to Cambridge University Press.
5. Perhaps Anthony Anghie is an exception. Consider his Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (2005).
6. Indeed I edited a book called Post-Modern Law in 1990 in which I apply Baudrillard's ideas sympathetically to a critique of public law and the state. I draw on these arguments in Chapter 7 of the present book.
7. In chapter 3, pp. 87-91 appeared in 'The System of International Law: The Right to Self-Determination, Minority Rights and Patters of Human Rights Violations - Connections with the Break-up or Implosion of States', in the European Yearbook of Minority Issues, 1 (2001/2) 67-70, with acknowledgments to Brill Publishers; and pp. 95-105, in 'Convergences and Divergences in International Law Traditions', European Journal of International Law (2000) extracts from 716-32, with acknowledgment to Oxford University Press. Chapter 7, pp. 203-10, 213-18 appeared in 'The National as a Meta-Concept of International Economic Law', in Asif Qureshi (ed.), Perspectives in International Economic Law (2002) extracts from 69-76, with acknowledgment to Kluwer Law International.
8. The chapter has been published in The Use of Force in International Relations: Challenges to Collective Security, ed. H. Koechler (2006).
9. Chapter 8 will appear in the Cambridge Review of International Affairs 19(2), with acknowledgment here to Taylor and Francis.
10. Bill Bowring, 'The Degradation of International Law,' in Law after Ground Zero ed. John Strawson (2002) 3, quoting David Chandler, From Kosovo to Kabul, Human Rights and Humanitarian Intervention (2002).
11. Appendix to Chapter 2, 'Distance and Contemporaneity in Exploring the Practice of States: The British Archives in Relation to the 1957 Oman and Muscat Incident,' The Singapore Yearbook of International Law, IX (2005), 75-85, with the permission of the Faculty of Law, Singapore National University; and appendix to Chapter 4, 'The UK Invasion of Iraq as a Recent United Kingdom "Contribution to International Law" ', in the European Journal of International Law 16 (2005), 143-51, with the permission of Oxford University Press.
12. Dictionnaire, 2nd edition, gen. ed. A. J. Arnaud (1993), entries by Sylvie Cimamonti and Aulis Aarnio, respectively.
13. See, in the Picardy Colloquium, Annick Perrot, La Doctrine et l'hypothèse du declin du droit (1993) 180, the entire article, but esp. 198, etc.
14. Dictionnaire, entry on Realism, Scandinavian, by Enrico Pattaro. Ross produced a Textbook of International Law in 1945.
15. Ludwig Ehrlich (ed.), Works of Paulus Vladimiri (A Selection) (1968) Vol. II, from 1st Tractatus (1417), 203.
16. Stanislaus F. Belch, Paulus Vladimiri and his Doctrine Concerning International Law and Politics (1965), Vol. 1, 213-14.
17. P. Haggenmacher, Grotius et la doctrine de la guerre juste (1983).
18. Jens Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty (1995) 128.
19. E. Jouannet, 'L'Emergence doctrinale du droit international classique. Emer de Vattel et l'école du droit de la nature et des gens,' PhD thesis, Paris, 1993, 447-8, 458-9.
20. The literature on this subject is now legion. I offer a survey of the main characters in Anthony Carty, 'Critical International Law: Recent Trends in the Theory of International Law,' in The European Journal of International Law V. 2 (1991) 66-95. The continued dynamic of this debate is illustrated by the opening and closing paragraphs of John Tasioulas, 'In Defence of Relative Normativity: Communitarian Values and the Nicaragua Case,' Ox. JLS 16 (1996) 85-128. He draws a distinction between the positivist statist concept of international society and a natural law orientation which gives a communitarian concept of the society.
21. See the 'Conclusion', British Institute of International Law (ed.) Theory and International Law, An Introduction (1991) 119-21.
22. Referring to M. Koskenniemi, 'The Future of Statehood,' 32 Harvard ILJ (1991) 397 at 407.
23. Tasioulas, 'In Defence of Relative Normativity,' 128.
24. A. Carty, 'Why Theory? - The Implications for International Law Teaching,' in Theory and International Law, An Introduction, 75, 77.
25. J. Crawford, 'Public International Law in Twentieth-century England,' in J. Beatson and R. Zimmermann (eds), Jurists Uprooted, Germanspeaking Émigré Lawyers in Twentieth-century Britain (2004) 681 at 699. 'Self-conscious exercises in "grand theory" in international law are a more recent phenomenon', referring to the work of David (not Duncan) Kennedy, M. Koskenniemi, P. Allott, and S. Marks. These are the theorists mentioned in the last section.
26. T. Baty, International Law in Twilight (1954) 10.
27. Crawford, 'Public International Law in Twentieth-century England,' 686 and 689.
28. What follows comes from Carty, 'Why Theory?,' 88, with citations omitted.
29. In The Liberal Tradition, From Fox to Keynes, ed. Bullock and Shock (1967) 165-7.
30. D. H. N. Johnson, 'The English Tradition in International Law,' International and Comparative Law Quarterly 11 (1962) 416, at 425, with a quotation from the first edition of his International Law (1900). Smith held numerous offices of state, but, for Johnson, the most significant example of the practice was Sir William Harcourt, who was both Whewell Professor of International Law in Cambridge and a leading Liberal statesman through the Gladstone ascendancy.
31. What follows is taken from 'Why Theory - Implications for International Law Teaching,' 78.
32. R. Y. Jennings, 'The State of International Law Today,' Journal of the Society of the Public Teachers of Law (1957-58) 95 at 96.
33. Preface to the Annual Digest of International Law Cases, Years 1925 and 1926 (1929) x.
34. Crawford, 'Public International Law in Twentieth-century England,' 700.
35. See further A. Carty, 'Visions of the Past of International Society, Law, History or Politics,' in the Modern Law Review 69(4) (Spring 2006), 644-60.
36. Martti Koskenniemi places the change in continental Europe in the 1950s, in The Gentle Civiliser of Nations (2002), 3, while David Kennedy is closer to the view expressed here that the shock of the Great War led international lawyers to hope, in his view somewhat magically or mysteriously, for peace through institutions, or even the language of institutions, see David Kennedy, 'The Move to Institutions,' Cardozo Law Review 8 (1987), 841, esp. to 849.
37. See Casper Sylvest, 'International Law in 19th Century Britain,' British Yearbook of International Law, LXXV (2004) 9-70; and John Anthony Carty '19th Century Textbooks on International Law,' unpublished thesis, Cambridge University, 1973, esp. Part VII, 'International Law in England, The Textbooks,' 277-379.
38. Carty, 'Why Theory? - The Implications for International Law Teaching,' 79-82 describing the state as an institution, a perspective most amenable to the superimposition of international institution, although obviously not causing them, merely catching the mood of the times, as a representative thinker.
39. J. Brierly, The Basis of Obligation in International Law, and Other Papers, ed. H. Lauterpacht (1958) 41-2.
40. Johnson, 'The English Tradition in International Law,' 432 ff.
41. Correlli Barnett, The Verdict of Peace (2001) 51-2, from the chapter, 'The Principal Partner of America in World Affairs,' tracing the symbiotic, if still unilateral, dependence of Britain on the US back to the Korean War.
42. The basic material for critique is provided by a leaked report of a meeting in July 2002 between Tony Blair, Jack Straw, Lord Goldsmith, and a Service Chief, which had such a character that it must have outraged a very senior government official who knew of it. The report indicated a political decision to manipulate public opinion against Saddam Hussein to prepare the country for war: reported and reproduced in The Sunday Times May 1, 2005, available on www.timesonline.co.uk (the secret Downing Street memorandum).
43. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty, 188-201.
44. I am referring to the work of figures such as, above all, George Scelle, but also James Leslie Brierly and Hans Kelsen. See further a systematic treatment of these authors for a questioning of state sovereignty in Jane E. Nijman, International Legal Personality (2004) 85-243.
45. See Anthony Carty, 'Convergences and Divergences in European International Law Traditions,' European Journal of International Law 11 (2000) 713, esp. 726-8, considering the French tradition of the state in international law. I will come to these themes again in the chapter 3 below.
46. See, for instance, Paul Ricoeur, The Conflict of Interpretations (English translation Northwestern Press 1974) ed. Don Ihde (2004) especially the chapter, 'Structure and Hermeneutics,' translated by Kathleen McLaughlin, 27-60, where Ricoeur confronts primarily the structuralist anthropology of Lévi-Strauss with his phenomenological doctrine of intentionality; also Anthony Carty, 'Scandinavian Realism and Phenomenological Approaches to Statehood and General Custom in International Law,' European Journal of International Law 14 (2003) 817, esp. 836-40, on the importance of becoming aware of the constraints of culture heritage and personal history, above all through the dialectic of intersubjectivity.
47. Carty, 'Critical International Law,' 67-70.
48. A. Carty, 'Interwar German Theories of International Law: The Psychoanalytical and Phenomenological Perspectives of Hans Kelsen and Carl Schmitt,' Cardozo Law Review 16 (1995) 1235-92.
49. Carty, 'Why Theory - Implications for International Law Teaching,' 73, 97-9.
50. ICJ Reports (1969), 3 at 77.
51. M. Sorensen, Les sources du droit international (1946) esp 109.
52. A. D'Amato, The Concept of Custom in International Law (1971) 82-4.
53. L'Unité de l'ordre juridique international, Cours général de droit international public (2003) 160; the author's translation.
54. For instance, N. K. Hevener on the 1971 South West Africa opinion, 'A New International Legal Philosophy,' 24 ICLQ (1975) 790, at 793-4; and R. Churchill on the Fisheries Jurisdiction Cases, 'The Contribution of the ICJ to the Debate on Coastal Fisheries Rights,' 24 ICLQ (1975) 82.
55. ICJ Reports (1986)1, para. 184 of judgment.
56. So the true founders of modern legal positivism are Robespierre and Saint Just.
57. G. de Lacharrière, La Politique juridique éxterieure (1983).
58. R. J. Dupuy, La Communauté internationale entre le mythe et l'histoire (1986).
59. T. Carty, 'The Origins of the Doctrine of Deterrence and the Legal Status of Nuclear Weapons,' in H. Davis, (ed.) Ethics and Defence (1986) 132.
60. R. Nisbet, Twilight of Authority, at 191, quoted in T. Carty, 'Legality and Nuclear Weapons: Doctrines of Nuclear Warfighting,' Davis, Ethics and Defence, 152.
61. J. Garrison, The Darkness of God: Theology after Hiroshima, (1982) 29-33 quoted by the author, in Davis, Ethics and Defence at 153.
62. Carty, The Decay of International Law, 111-13.
63. C. Guttierrez Espada, El Estado de necessidad y el uso de la fuera en derecho internacional (1987), a comprehensive review of the treatment of the issue by the ILC at 47-59, and especially at 36, 59-61.
64. ICJ (2002) 1.
65. Regina v. Bartle and the Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis ex parte Pinochet, March 24, 1999, www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldjudgmt.htm.
66. M. Akehurst, 'The Concept of Custom in International Law,' BYIL 47 (1974-5) 195.
67. A. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (1999) 179.
68. A. Rivier, Principes du droit des gens (1896) 35, C. Rousseau, Droit international public, vol. 1, (1970) 324, and P. Guggenheim, 'Contribution à l'histoire des sources du droit des gens,' 94 Hague Received (1958) 53.
69. F. von Holtzendorff and A. Rivier, Introduction au droit des gens. The reliance of the textbook on this work is quite explicit, e.g. 27, 31, and 37.
70. Obituary of A. Rivier by M. E. Lehr, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International XVII (1898) 415, 429.
71. J. Habermas, L'Espace public (1986). This part of the argument draws upon what the author has already written in his 'Changing Models of the International System,' in W. E. Butler (ed.), Perestroika and International Law (1990) 13-30.
72. Cited in E. Nys, 'Alphonse Rivier, sa vie et ses oeuvres,' Revue de droit international XXXI (1899) 342, 344.
73. Speech of M. Mancini, in G. Rolin-Jaequemyns, De la necessité d'organiser une institution scientifique permanente pour favoriser l' étude et les progrés du droit international, Revue de droit international V (1873) 463 at 706.
74. Principes du droit des gens I, 27.
75. R. P. Dhokalia, The Codification of International Law less (1970).
76. Note 43 at 704.
77. R. Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe (1967) 152-3.
78. A. J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime (1981) 79-127.
79. Note 41, at 34, 38.
80. Habermas, L'Espace public, 165.
81. See further, A. Carty, 'Scandinavian Realism and Phenomenological Approaches to State and General Customary Law,' EJIL 14 (2003) 817-41.
82. A. Carty and R. Smith, Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice and the World Crisis, a Legal Adviser in the Foreign Office 1932-1945 (2000) 25 ff.
83. See the use of ethnographic theories of Clifford and Rouland in A. Carty, 'Critical International Law: Recent Trends in the Theory of International Law,' EJIL 2 (1991) 66-96.
84. A. Carty and R. Smith (eds), Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice and the World Crisis: A Legal Adviser in the Foreign Office (1932-1945) (2000) 23-7.
85. M. Mendelson, 'The Subjective Element in Customary International Law,' BYIL 66 (1995) 177.
86. A. Aust, 'The Theory and Practice of Informal International Instruments,' 35 ICLQ (1986) 787.
87. See A. Carty, 'The UK, the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the ICJ and the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes,' in Carty and G. Danilenko (eds) Perestroika and International Law, 131-3. Aust's 1986 International and Comparative Law Quarterly article is discussed here.
88. M. Curtis, The Ambiguities of Power: British Foreign Policy since 1945 (1995); Curtis, The Great Deception: Anglo-American Power and World Order (1998).
89. G. Marston (ed.), 'United Kingdom Materials on International Law,' BYIL (1986) 57. 614-20.
90. Curtis, The Ambiguities of Power: British Foreign Policy since 1945, 98-9.
91. Dobson, 'The Great Deception (Book Review),' 74 International Affairs (1998) 923-4.
92. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126877/EA1015/89.
93. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126887/EA1015/365.
94. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126884/EA1015/282(A), August 20, 1957.
95. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126884/EA1015/283, August 20, 1957.
96. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126878/EA1015.
97. See also Nolte, Eingreifen auf Einladung (1999) 86-9.
98. E. Lauterpacht, 'Contemporary Practice of the United Kingdom,' ICLQ 7 (1958) 99-109.
99. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126887/EA1015/371.
100. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/126829: FO Confidential Note on the Agreement of Sib, and Sir Pierson Dixon's Speech in the Security Council of 20/8/1957, prepared by Sir Ronald Wingate.
101. UK, Foreign Office, FO Confidential Print on the Buraimi at 157.
102. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/26882/EA1015/235.
103. UK, Foreign Office, FO/371/26882/EA1015/235(A).
104. Dorril, MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations (2000) 729-35.
105. Townsend, Oman: The Making of a Modern state (1977).
106. M. Curtis, Web of Deceit: Britain's Real Role in the World (2003) 279.
107. J. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty (1995), especially chapter 5.
108. R. Cooper, The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty- First Century (2003) especially 16-37.
109. Unfortunately, time does not permit further discussion of postmodern Europe.
110. ICJ Reports (1986) 554 and especially para. 20.
111. International Law Reports 92 (1994) 170.
112. UNGA Declaration on the Principles of Friendly Relations among States GA Res 2625, 25 UNOR (1970).
113. See a review of the debate in Democratic Governance and International Law ed. G. Fox and B. Roth (2000).
114. The seminal study of the influence of this approach on international law is Glanville L. Williams, 'International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Word Law' in the BYBIL (1945) 146 ff.
115. A. Cassese, International Law (2001) 47.
116. Dietmar Willoweit, Rechtsgrundlagen der Territorialgewalt (1975), esp. 123-5, 126, 129-31.
117. G. W. Gong, The Standard of Civilisation in International Society, (1984), 16.
118. (Perm. cf. Arb 1928) 2 UN Rep. Intl. Arb. Awards, 829.
119. James Crawford, 'State Practice and International Law in Relation to Secession,' BYBIL (1998) 85 at 114.
120. See references 12-14 above, and the work of Willoweit. The outcome rests on the exclusive option for Hobbes over the natural law tradition and one will have to come back to it again in this chapter and also in the next.
121. Crawford, 'State Practice and International Law in Relation to Secession,' 102-3.
122. J. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty (1995) 128.
123. Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace and Other Essays, trans. T. Humphrey (1982) 355.
124. A. Carty, 'Why Theory, Implications for International Law Teaching,' Theory and International Law, An Introduction (1990) 73 at 97-9.
125. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty, 188-201.
126. Jean Combacau and Serge Sur, Droit international public, 1st edition (1993, the edition used here unless otherwise stated: there is now a 4th edition, 1999).
127. These perspectives of French foreign policy elites are culled from two volumes: Marie-Christine Kessler, La Politique étrangère de la France, acteurs et processus (1999), esp. 153-65; and Maxime Lefebvre, Le Jeu du droit et de la puissance: Précis de relations internationales (1997) esp. 68, 72, 105, 123-30, 151, 158-60 and 192-205. Both authors retain close links with the Institut des Sciences Politiques, Paris, the pathway for students, through their examinations, to the École National d'Administration and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. I have also explored the impact of these themes on French international law doctrine in numerous articles, and, in particular, 'L'Union européenne à la recherche d'un droit des relations extérieures,' in Union Européene: Intégration et Coopération, ed. Alain Fenet and Anne Sinay-Cytermann (1995) 245-56.
128. This theory of the state, it will be argued in the next section, is, in terms of the history of the theory of the state, early modern, absolutist in character. As it is the lynchpin of the whole presentation of a French position, in the sense that both an epistemology of law and particular rules on the use of force are seen to follow from it, it is essential to consider whether the views of these authors are unrepresentative of their international law colleagues in France. In Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Daillier, and Alain Pellet, Droit International Public, 6th edition (1999), the authors say that for the definition of the elements of a state, among the terms population, nation, and people, only the first is accepted. Disagreement is total on the meaning of the term 'nation.' The spirit of this analysis is the same as with Combacau and Sur. The effect of a right of secession, vindicating a right of self-determination, would be unlimited territorial claims. Once a state is created it confiscates the rights of peoples (para. 267, pp. 407-8). In the recent collective volume directed by Denis Alland, Droit International Public (2000) Hervé Ascensio provides a very lucid third chapter on the state as a subject of international law. Using virtually identical metaphors to Daillier and Pellet he speaks of the right of self-determination of peoples as a matter which may be exercised at a particular historical instance, after which the people effaces itself once again behind the state (para. 91). He draws a distinction between the sociological and juridical definition of the state, one which Kelsen had tried to overcome, and he prefers the former, which reflects the factual, historical origin of the state, that its coming into existence is not governed by international law (paras 73-5). The drive for self-determination may be one fact contributing to the appearance of new states. In his Droit International Public, 4th edition, Pierre-Marie Dupuy gives extensive attention to the relationship between the classical definition of the state and the right of self-determination of peoples, saying that the problem is difficult because the latter is accepted as legal and as applying in all situations, if one follows the letter and the logic of the international legal texts (para. 133). He looks to international recognition as a solution, with the qualification that there are no clearly objective criteria to identify what is a people. While international law is no longer indifferent to issues of legitimacy and human rights, it will still be a question whether the traditional elements of the state, which express effectivity, are reunited in a particular case (paras 30-4, 130-2). Dominique Carreau's Droit International, 5th edition (1997) treats the state in the juridical (Kelsen) sense as a sphere of jurisdictional competence accorded by an international legal order and does not look any further into any of the issues examined here.
129. An argument which has been developed by his student E. Jouannet in her doctoral thesis 'L'Emergence doctrinale du droit international classique, Emer de Vattel et l'école du droit de la nature et des gens' (1993).
130. Jouannet provides an interesting link between the corporate nature of the state and the shaping of rules by states in their relations with one another as corporate bodies. She attributes this development to Vattel. The difficulty is that Vattel is a follower of Locke and did not have a 'realist' view of international society. For reasons of space it is not possible to discuss here more fully Jouannet's views, and, anyway, there is no spirit of Locke in Combacau and Sur. However, the criticisms made here of their approach do not have the same force as applied to Vattel. For another history of Vattel tracing Locke's influence, see Francis Ruddy, 'The Origins of the Ideas of Vattel,' PhD thesis, University Of Cambridge (1969).
131. Presse Universitaire de France: Paris, 1999.
132. Lejbowicz, Philosophie, 143ff.
133. This theme will be pursued further in the final section.
134. Völkerrecht ed. Knut Ipsen, 4th edition (1999), and Völkerrecht, ed. Wolfgang Graf Vitzthum (1997), with a second edition in preparation. Throughout the paper, account will be taken of the positions presented in these works, bearing in mind, at the same time, both their collective and reference (informational) character.
135. 'Bei einem Staatsvolk muss es sich um einen dauerhaften Personenverbund handeln, der in der Geschlechterfolge fortlebt . . .' Different from standard British and French definitions. The authors cite a German court case which refers to the celebrated strong concept of the population as a Schicksalsgemeinschaft (a community of destiny).
136. It is here that the collective and reference character of the other textbooks present problems. In Ipsen's work, chapter 2, on the state as the normal subject of international law, stresses the unity of a state not in terms of language, culture, or religion, etc., but simply their living together under a common legal system (para. 5). However, the long chapter 6 on peoples (Völker im Völkerrecht) by Hans-Joachim Heintze is much closer to the main text, especially para. 27.4.
137. This has remained a virtually standard German position if one considers the whole chapter by Heintze Völker im Völkerrecht cited above, which is a systematic forty plus-page treatment. While Heintze regards appeal to an external right of self-determination as exceptional, compared to the preservation of the territorial integrity of states, he gives general grounds for the exercise of the right. In contrast in Vitzthum's work in chapter 3, Kay Hailbronner in Der Staat und der Einzelne als Völkerrechtssubjekte dismisses the legal character of a right to selfdetermination in less than a page (3.24-5). At the same time, he recommends a practical conflict-prevention strategy in the face of demands of collective groups. Appropriate autonomy measures can anticipate conflict between a state and its minorities (3.26-9). This approach is grounded in a functionalist assumption that stable state structures should ensure a Law of International Relations which guarantees individual and, where appropriate, minority group rights (3.4-6).
138. Muller Verlag: Heidelberg, 1998.
139. Döhring, Volkerrecht, 3-4.
140. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty.
141. Lejbowicz, Philosophie, 407-16, quotation at 416.
142. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty, 188-201.
143. Brierly, The Law of Nations (1963) 39-40.
144. I., Kant, Perpetual Peace and Other Essays on Politics, History and Morals, trans. and ed. T. Humphrey (1982) 355.
145. J. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty (1995) 194-5.
146. International Law vol. 1 (1992/6) 135-6.
147. E. Jouannet, L'Emergence: Part II Autonomisation du droit des gens (1993) esp. 141-7.
148. Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty, esp. 137-85, a summary of chapter 5, 'How policy became foreign.'
149. Jouannet, Autonomisation, 447.
150. B. Stoitzner, 'Die Lehre vom Stufenbau der Rechtsordnung,' in S. Paulson and, B.Walter, Untersuchungen zur Reinen Rechtslehre (1986), 50 at 76; also T. Ohlinger, Der Völkerrechtliche Vertrag (1975).
151. H. Kelsen, Der soziologische und der juristische Staatsbegriff (1928) 137.
152. H. Kelsen, Das Problem der Souveränität und die Theorie des Völkerrechts (1920/8), 230-1, 239-41.
153. H. Kelsen, Collective Security under International Law (1954) 18.
154. C. Tournaye, Kelsen et la securité collective (1995) 43-4, citing Kelsen and refering to other literature.
155. O. Pfersmann, 'De la justice constitutionnelle à la justice internationale: Hans Kelsen et la seconde guerre mondiale,' Revue française de droit constitutionnel 16 (1993) 761 at 788-9.
156. Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace, Political Thought and The International Order from Grotius to Kant (1999) 130.
157. A quotation from Hobbes, On the Citizen, I, 2 by Tuck, at 134.
158. This follows an argument already presented in Anthony Carty 'English Constitutional Law from a Postmodernist Perspective,' in Dangerous Supplements, ed. Peter Fitzpatrick (1991) 182-206.
159. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B. McPherson (1968), chapter 42, 567.
160. Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace, 170-1, quoting Locke's Second Treatise of Government, paras 7 and 9.
161. The Law of Nations, vol. II, 1, 7.
162. Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace, 195-6.
163. John Kampfner, Blair's War (2004) 152.
164. Mark Curtis, Unpeople, Britain's Secret Human Rights Abuses (2004).
165. Robert Cooper, The Breaking of Nations (2004).
166. International and Comparative Law Quarterly 52 (2003) 811 ff. The Attorney General's Answer and a Foreign and Commonwealth Office Paper.
167. Review of Intelligence of Weapons of Mass Destruction, HC 898, July 2004.
168. www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page5461.asp March 5, 2004, Prime Minister warns of continuing terror threat. This very substantial speech shows the influence of Cooper in the comprehensiveness with which it rewrites the agenda of international law, and will be considered later.
169. www.mod.uk.
170. www.mod.uk. Chapter 3, 'Lessons From The Operation: Key Lessons,' no. 1, quoted in Curtis, 76.
171. www.mod.uk. White Paper, p. 1.
172. www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page5461.asp.
173. www.observer.guardian.co.iuk/worldview/story/0,11581,680117,00.html.
174. Breaking of Nations, inside cover pages for both quotations.
175. Revised edition (1998).
176. In The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism (2003).
177. Harvard University Press, 2004.
178. Especially chapters 5 and 6.
179. Harvard University Press, 1990.
180. New York Times, October 17, 2004. I am grateful to my Westminster and American law colleague Andrea Jarman for bringing this article to my attention.
181. Jewett and Lawrence explain Wallis's own theological views about responses to 9/11 at CACAE, 3.
182. Council of Foreign Relations (1997).
183. Cambridge, 2004, 192.
184. The United States etc., 155.
185. AJIL 97, No. 3 (July 2003) 628-42.
186. The United States etc., 155 and 161.
187. AJIL 97, No. 3 (July 2003) 585-90.
188. AJIL 97 No. 3 (2003) 576-85.
189. AJIL 97 (2003) 563-76.
190. M. Hardt and A. Negri, Empire (2000).
191. The term molecular is taken from D. Harvey, The New Imperialism (2003) 29-32.
192. P. Bobbitt, The Shield of Achilles: War and Peace and the Course of History (2002) xxxii.
193. In his contribution to M. Byers and G. Nolte, The United States Hegemony and the Foundations of International Law (2003) 98.
194. O. Bennett, Cultural Pessimism, Narratives of Decline in the Post- Modern World (2001) 146.
195. A. Callinicos, Against Postmodernism (1989) 82.
196. Bennett, Cultural Pessimism, 16.
197. Callinicos, Against Postmodernism, 84-6.
198. Hardt and Negri, Empire, 31.
199. J. Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents (2002).
200. E. Todd, Weltmacht, USA Ein Nachruf (2003) 95, referring to the taboo character surrounding discussion of shrinking demand among economists considering globalization. The only exception he can find is Chalmers Johnson, Ein Imperium verfaellt, Wann endet das Amerikanische Jahrhundert? (2000) 252.
201. G. Arrighi and B. J. Silver (eds), Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System (1999), generally, and especially Chapter 1, 'Geopolitics and High Finance,' 37-96.
202. Todd, in Weltmacht USA, identifies this feature of advanced capitalism as affecting equally all the so-called Western democracies. In particular France and Great Britain are governed by remote oligarchies that preside over increasingly polarized societies, 32-6.
203. The least disputable aspect of this argument: see Arrighi and Silver, Chaos, 284, Harvey, New Imperialism, 128-9; Todd, Weltmacht USA, 117-19.
204. Arrighi and Silver, Chaos, 137, 147.
205. Harvey, New Imperialism, 48-9.
206. Todd, Weltmacht USA, 115-16.
207. Arrighi and Silver, Chaos, 88-96, 284.
208. An identical argument by Todd, Weltmacht USA, who points to the particular role of Germany and Japan as subordinate powers, suffering huge military bases which they finance indirectly, 110-11.
209. Arrighi and Silver, Chaos, 219-46.
210. Harvey, The New Imperialism, 144.
211. Arrighi and Silver, Chaos, 205-11.
212. W. Hutton, The World We Are In (2001), 234-9.
213. Harvey, The New Imperialism, 181.
214. V. Kubalkova and A. Cruickshank, Marxism and International Relations (1989). One could give weight to Soviet or Chinese doctrines of international law, or also the whole range of other post-1945 Marxist theories of international relations, but the turn of the millennium, remarkably, allows focus on issues in a manner similar to the immediate pre-1914 period, i.e. where there is a crisis of hegemony, this time of the United States, while earlier, of Great Britain.
215. Arrighi and Sliver, Chaos, 92.
216. Harvey, The New Imperialism, 153-4.
217. Todd, Weltmacht USA, 32-6.
218. Kubalkova and Cruickshank, Marxism and International Relations, 52. This assumption underlies my contribution to A. Qureshi, Perspectives in International Economic Law (2002), 'The National as a Meta- Concept of International Economic Law,' 65.
219. This is the clear overall argument of both their books.
220. A Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (1999), 178.
221. See, for instance, D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (1989), which explains the break from fixed to floating currencies as marking the end of the balance between organized labour, large corporate capital and the nation-state, and which Bennett highlights as a watershed in the spread of modern cultural pessimism, Cultural Pessimism, 146.
222. Harvey, The New Imperialism, 141-2.
223. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics 180-1.
224. Todd, Weltmacht USA, 36-8, 56-8, 146-54, 164-82.
225. Harvey, The New Imperialism, 75, 209, see also, more generally Kubalkova and Cruickshank, Marxism and International Relations, 52-3, that the development of capitalism is so uneven that conflict is inevitable.
226. Todd, Weltmacht USA, 211-38; Hutton, The World We Are In, esp. 400-11.
227. Harvey, The New Imperialism, 211-12.
228. This is argued most forcefully by such British figures as R. Cooper ('The New Imperialism', The Observer, April 7, 2002), a Blair advisor, and Niall Ferguson, a historian of the British empire and international economic and financial history.
229. As the author has already suggested, particularly in 'The National as a Meta-Concept of International Economic Law', in Qureshi (ed.) Perspectives in International Economic Law; and in A. Carty, 'Liberal Rhetoric and the Democratisation of the World Economy,' in Ethics (1988), 65.
230. The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law (2002), Ch. 21, 'Philosophy of International Law.'
231. A Philosophy of International Law (1998).
232. The Law of Peoples (1999).
233. Oxford Handbook, 887.
234. See Teson, Philosophy of International Law, chapter 4, 'The Rawlsian Theory of International Law,' esp. 115 and 120.
235. John Rawls, Le Droit des gens, intro. Betrand Guillarme (1996), 51.
236. Teson, Philosophy of International Law, 120.
237. See especially, Susan Marks, The Riddle of All Consitutions, International Law, Democracy and The Critique of Ideology (2000).
238. This is the central argument of Alain Joxe, Empire of Disorder (2002).
239. Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars. Organised Violence in a Global Era (1999).
240. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (1961), 116-17.
241. Sir Ian Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 2nd edition (1984) gives an excellent account of the Western Third World confrontation on this issue in the drafting of the Convention. The West threatened to drop the whole idea of the convention if the Third World countries persisted with their proposal to regulate the use of economic pressure or force. The issue is not mentioned by Anthony Aust, Modem Treaty Law and Practice (2000), which may now be the standard current work on the subject, based very largely on the Vienna Convention.
242. Michel Schooyans, La Face cachée de L'·ONU (2000), at 222-23.
243. Schooyans, La Face cachée de L'·ONU, 37.
244. See further in Anthony Carty (ed.), Post-modern Law (1990) 'Postmodernism in the Theory and Sociology of Law,' at 82-5, in the section, 'Baudrillard and the End of the Social.'
245. Many international lawyers have recognized for some time that to treat democracy as an international law right to democratic governance had this violent potential. Any notion of a right must imply that it can be enforced, in Western consciousness. See, for instance, Gregory Fox and Brad Roth (eds), Democratic Governance and International Law (2000), especially the contributions by Koskenniemi, Marks, Byers, and Chesterman.
246. Hart, The Concept of Law, 116-17.
247. H. L. A. Hart, 'Definition and Theory in Jurisprudence', 70 LQR (1954) 37 at 48.
248. Schooyans, 'L' Empire du consensus', 136-41, with reference to Kelsen.
249. Hart, 'Definition and Theory', 48-9.
250. Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace. Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (1999) 130.
251. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B. McPhearson (1968) 556-7.
252. Quoted in Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace, 202.
253. A. Carty, 'The Continuing Influence of Kelsen on the General Perception of the Discipline of International Law,' EJIL (1998) 344-54.
254. Schooyans, 'L'Empire du consensus', 157-66, esp. 159.
255. M. K. Green, 'Cultural Themes in European Philosophy, Law and Economics', History of European Ideas 19 (1994) 805, at 805-6. Green refers to a study of articles in the Harvard Business Review from 1940 to 1970, which concludes that the ethical climate of American business is Hobbesean in the sense that the culture is full of conflict and change as individuals attempt to build a place for themselves in a hostile world.
256. Linda Weiss, The Myth of the Powerless State, Governing in a Global Era (1998) 69-72.
257. D. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (1990).
258. G. Dunkley, The Free Trade Adventure (2000) 162.
259. This follows Robert Biel, The New Imperialism, Crisis and Contradiction in North/South Relations (2000) 1-130.
260. See Hans-Erich Volkmann, 'Die NS-Wirtschaft in Vorbereitung des Krieges,' in Wilhelm Deist et al. (eds), Ursachen und Voraussetzungen des Zweiten Weltkrieges (1989), 211-435.
261. Biel, The New Imperialism, 183 and what follows, 184-5.
262. Robert McCrum, 'They Are Talking Our Language,' The Observer (Review), March 18, 2001.
263. Ruth Grant and Robert Keohane, 'Accountability and Abuses of Power in World Politics,' American Political Science Review 99, no. 1 (February 2005) 29, at 33.
264. Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Towards a New Common Sense: Law Science and Politics in the Paradigmatic Transition (1995) 36-7, and generally 11-37.
265. Roberto M. Unger, What Should Legal Analysis Become? (1996) 96.
266. This definition of informal law is taken from Leon Petrazycki, Law and Morality (1954); for further background, see George S. Langrod and Michelina Vaughan, 'The Polish Psychological Theory of Law,' in Polish Law Through the Ages, ed. W. J. Wagner (1970) 299-362.
267. Unger, What Should Legal Analysis Become? 123-5.
268. Nicholas Mercuro and Steven G. Medema, Economics and the Law: From Posner to Post-Modernism (1997) 165-9.
269. Unger, What Should Legal Analysis Become? 109.
270. This has been the argument of chapters 4-6.
271. R. Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace, Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant, 2001.
272. Paul Ricoeur, Parcours de la reconnaissance (2004) 241.
273. Molly Mann, 'Ricoeur's Dialectic of Solicitous Giving and Receiving: Instruction, Recognition and Justice,' 20-1: Paper Presented at the Colloquium, 'Thinking the Present,' University of California at Berkeley, May 2005, http://www.criticalsense.berkeley.edu/mann.pdf.
274. In Paul Ricoeur and Contemporary Moral Thought, ed. John Wall, (1992); Fred Dallmayr, 'Ethics and Public Life,' in ibid., 221.
275. Mann, Ricoeur's Dialectic, 23, quoting Riceour, The Just (2000) 37.
276. Paul Keal, European Conquest and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2003), 56 ff.
277. Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World (1994). From an Order of Fear to One of Respect 245
278. Quoted by Keal, European Conquest, 62 from Pagden, European Encounters, 36.
279. Gong, quoting Lewis, in The Standard of "Civilisation" in International Society (1984) 108.
280. A. L. Macfie, Orientalism, A Reader (2000), 4.
281. Second edition (1992).
282. A. Carty, 'Scandinavian Realism and Phenomenological Approaches to Statehood and General Custom in International Law' 14, EJIL (2003) 817, at 820.
283. In Jürgen Habermas, Der gespaltene Westen (2004) 113 at 146.
284. Manuchehr Sanadjian, 'Fetishised Liberty, the Fear of the Other and the Global Juridical Rule in Iraq,' Social Identities 10 (2004) 665 at 666.
285. See, generally, James Der Derian, On Diplomacy, A Genealogy of Western Estrangement (1987).
286. The sub-title of the volume edited by James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro, International/Intertextual Relations (1989). See especially the chapters by Richard and Ashley, 'Living on Borderlines: Man, Poststructuralism and War,' and William E. Connolly, 'Identity and Difference in Global Politics.'
287. M. Hardt and A. Negri, Empire (2000).
288. M. Foucault, The Order of Things, An Archeology of the Human Sciences (1970).
289. J. Nijman, The Concept of International Legal Personality: An Inquiry into the History and Theory of International Law (2004) 377-8.
290. On Diplomacy, 4.
291. Quoted ibid., 8.
292. On Diplomacy. See chapters 7 and 8, on Anti-diplomacy and Neodiplomacy.
293. Nijman, The Concept of International Legal Personality, esp. chapter 3.
294. Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear (1982).
295. Following Helmut Plessner's The Limits of Community, A Critique of Social Radicalism trans and introduction, Andrew Wallace (1999).
296. Buzan, Peoples, States and Fear, esp. chapters 2 and 4.
297. Plessner, The Limits of Community, the translator's introduction, Wallace, esp. 9-16.