"Kick down the door, clean up the mess, and rebuild the house" - The Africa command and transformation of the US military

Geopolitics

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 564-585

  Bachmann, Jan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARMED FORCES; CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONSHIP; DEVELOPMENT PROJECT; FOREIGN POLICY; MILITARY INTERVENTION; NATIONAL SECURITY; PERCEPTION;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 77956068387     PISSN: 14650045     EISSN: 15573028     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14650040903501088     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. See D. Porter, 'Good Anthropology, Bad History. The cultural turn in studying war', Parameters 37/2 (Summer 2007) pp. 45-58;
2. S. Power, 'Our War on Terror', New York Times, 29 July 2007.
3. Recent books on classical counterinsurgency include D. Galuga, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (Westport, CT: Praeger Security International 2006 [orig. 1964]);
4. J. Nagl, How to Eat Soup with a Knife: Lessons from Malaya and Vietnam (Chicago: Chicago University Press 2005).
5. See for a critical account J. Keenan, 'US Militarisation in Africa. What Anthropologists Should Know About AFRICOM', Anthropology Today 24/5 (Oct. 2008) pp. 16-20;
6. C. Besteman, 'Counter AFRICOM', in Network of Concerned Anthropologists (ed.), The Counter-Counterinsurgency Manual (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm 2009).
7. For an affirmative perspective see S. McFate, 'Briefing: US Africa Command. Next Step or Next Stumble?', African Affairs 107/426 (Jan. 2008) p. 116.
8. R. Henry and W. Sharp, 'Department of Defense News Briefing', Washington, DC, 7 Feb. 2007, available at , accessed 29 Dec. 2008.
9. M. Clough, Free at Last? US Policy Toward Africa and the End of the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations 1992) pp. 1-19;
10. P. Schraeder, United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa. Incrementalism, crisis and change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994) pp. 1-50.
11. Clough, Free at Last? US Policy Toward Africa and the End of the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations 1992) pp. 1-19p. 7.
12. The great exception is Ethiopia which received the largest portion of US military assistance by the US throughout the 1960s until the Derg took over in 1974. The US also trained and equipped Ethiopia's 40,000 strong army. See J. A. Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn. US Security Policy for Ethiopia and Somalia 1953-1991 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1991) p. 95.
13. L. Ploch, 'Africa Command: US strategic Interests and the Role of the US Military in Africa', Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (Washington DC: CRS update Aug. 2008) p. 12. This does not imply that there was no direct US military engagement or presence on the continent. During the Congo crises in the early 1960s, the US sent forces into the Congo and provided logistical support for Congolese and Belgian troops and also provided airlifts for multinational troops into Zaire in 1978. Between 1942 and 1977 the US military had a base at Kagnew (then Ethiopia). In 1981 the US military shot down two Libyan jets over the Gulf of Sidra.
14. See also Z. Laïdi, The Superpowers and Africa. The Constraints of a Rivalry 1960-1990 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1990).
15. Clough, Free at Last? US Policy Toward Africa and the End of the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations 1992) pp. 1-19pp. 12-13.
16. L. Lawson, 'US Africa Policy Since the Cold War', Strategic Insights VI/1 (Jan. 2007).
17. Department of Defense (Office of International Security Affairs), US Security Strategy for Sub- Saharan Africa (Washington DC: Department of Defense).
18. B. Buzan, O. Wæver, and J. de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 1998) p. 23.
19. African Oil Policy Initiative Group, African Oil: A Priority for US National Security and African Development (Washington DC: Author, June 2002).
20. Today almost every fourth barrel of crude oil imported by the US comes from Africa - already exceeding imports from the Persian Gulf. See 'Africa Tops Mideast, as Markets Change', International Herald Tribune, 21 Feb. 2007.
21. African Oil Policy Initiative Group, African Oil: A Priority for US National Security and African Development (Washington DC: Author, June 2002).
22. Africa Policy Advisory Panel, 'Rising US stakes in Africa. Seven Proposals to Strengthen US Africa Policy (Washington DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, May 2004), emphasis in original.
23. D. Bigo, 'Security and Immigration: Towards a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease', Alternatives 27 (Special Issue 2002) p. 63;
24. D. Bigo, 'When two Become One. Internal and External Securitisations in Europe', in M. Kelstrup and M. Williams (eds.), International Relations Theory and the Politics of European Integration: Power, Security and Community (London: Routledge 2000) p. 194.
25. See for a discussion of the maps used by EUCOM: J. Bachmann, 'The Danger of Ungoverned Spaces - The "War on Terror" and its Effects in the Sahel Region', in J. Eckert (ed.), The Social Life of Anti- Terrorism Laws. The War on Terror and the Classifications of the 'Dangerous Others' (Bielefeld: Transcript 2008) pp. 131-162.
26. For a detailed account of the hostage taking and the setting up of a "second front" of the US war on terror in the Sahel region see J. Keenan, The Dark Sahara. America's War on Terror in Africa (London: Pluto Press 2009).
27. See M. Neocleous, Imagining the State (Maidenhead: Open University Press 2003) p. 119.
28. J. B. Harley, 'Maps, Knowledge, Power', in J. B. Harley (ed.), The New Nature of Maps (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2001) p. 81.
29. Bachmann, 'The Danger of Ungoverned Spaces - The "War on Terror" and its Effects in the Sahel Region', in J. Eckert (ed.), The Social Life of Anti- Terrorism Laws. The War on Terror and the Classifications of the 'Dangerous Others' (Bielefeld: Transcript 2008) pp. 131-162;
30. L. Ploch, 'US Strategic Interests and the Role of the US Military in Africa', Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (Washington DC: CRS update 10 March 2008) p. 2.
31. B. J. Craddock, 'Testimony Given before the Armed Forces Committee of the US Senate', 19 Sep. 2006.
32. K. Dodds, quoted in J. Allen, 'Power', in J. Agnew, K. Mitchell, and G. Toal (eds.), A Companion to Political Geography (Oxford: Blackwell 2003) p. 102.
33. 'Officials Weigh Need for Africa Command', American Forces Press Service, 6 Dec. 2006, available at , accessed 30 July 2009.
34. R. D. Kaplan, 'The Next Frontier', Atlantic Monthly, Nov. 2007.
35. J. P. Pham, 'America's New Africa Command: Paradigm Shift or Step Backwards?', Brown Journal of World Affairs 15/1 (2008) p. 266.
36. White House, 'President Bush Creates a Department of Defense United Combatant Command for Africa', press release, White House, Washington, DC, 6 Feb. 2007.
37. Henry and Sharp, 'Department of Defense News Briefing', Washington, DC, 7 Feb. 2007, available at , accessed 29 Dec. 2008.
38. J. P. Pham, 'Getting AFRICOM Right', World Defense Review, 15 Feb. 2007.
39. 'Officials Weigh Need', American Forces Press Service, 6 Dec. 2006, available at , accessed 30 July 2009;
40. R. Henry, 'Briefing at the State Department's Foreign Press Center', Washington, DC, 22 June 2007, available at , accessed 29 Dec. 2008.
41. E. Marks, 'Why USAFRICOM', Joint Force Quarterly 52 (First Quarter 2009) pp. 248-151;
42. J. J. F. Forest and R. Crispin, 'AFRICOM: Troubled Infancy, Promising Future', Contemporary Security Policy 30/1 (April 2009) pp. 5-27 and the replies in the same issue; Concerned Africa Scholars, 'Campaign to Resist AFRICOM', available at , accessed 29 Dec. 2008;
43. Besteman, 'Counter AFRICOM', in Network of Concerned Anthropologists (ed.), The Counter-Counterinsurgency Manual (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm 2009).
44. Forest and Crispin, 'AFRICOM: Troubled Infancy, Promising Future', Contemporary Security Policy 30/1 (April 2009) pp. 5-27 and the replies in the same issue; Concerned Africa Scholars, 'Campaign to Resist AFRICOM', available at , accessed 29 Dec. 2008 p. 11.
45. This view is expressed in the contributions by Menkhaus and by N'Dyaie and Africa, in the Symposium on AFRICOM, Contemporary Security Policy 30/1 (April 2009) pp. 28-97.
46. M. Malan, 'Exploring the US Africa Command and a New Strategic Relationship with Africa', testimony given before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Subcommittee on African Affairs, Washington, DC, 1 Aug. 2007.
47. US Government Accountability Office (GAO), Actions needed to address stakeholder concerns, improve interagency collaboration, and determine full costs associated with the US Africa Command (Washington DC: GAO Feb 2009), pp. 16-20.
48. W. E. Ward, speech given at the University of Boston, 22 Oct. 2008, available at .
49. US Africa Command, 2009 Posture Statement (Stuttgart: US Africa Command March 2009) pp. 13 and 39. AFRICOM additionally facilitates several State Department-funded programmes including the International Military Education and Training, Foreign Military Financing, Foreign Military Sales, Africa Contingency Operations Training and Assistance.
50. US Africa Command, 2009 Posture Statement (Stuttgart: US Africa Command March 2009) pp. 13 and 39. AFRICOM additionally facilitates several State Department-funded programmes including the International Military Education and Training, Foreign Military Financing, Foreign Military Sales, Africa Contingency Operations Training and Assistance.p. 33.
51. 'US Aided a Failed Plan to Rout Ugandan Rebels', New York Times, 6 Feb. 2009.
52. 'US Used Bases in Ethiopia to Hunt Al Qaeda', New York Times, 23 Feb. 2007.
53. US Africa Command, 2009 Posture Statement (Stuttgart: US Africa Command March 2009) pp. 13 and 39. AFRICOM additionally facilitates several State Department-funded programmes including the International Military Education and Training, Foreign Military Financing, Foreign Military Sales, Africa Contingency Operations Training and Assistance p. 12.
54. S. Lischer, 'Winning Hearts and Minds in the Horn of Africa. Humanitarian Aid and the War on Terror' Harvard International Review (March 2007), available at , accessed 30 July 2009.
55. US Africa Command, 2009 Posture Statement (Stuttgart: US Africa Command March 2009) pp. 13 and 39. AFRICOM additionally facilitates several State Department-funded programmes including the International Military Education and Training, Foreign Military Financing, Foreign Military Sales, Africa Contingency Operations Training and Assistance p. 29.
56. Former CJTF-HoA commander R.W. Hunt, quoted in Lischer, 'Winning Hearts and Minds in the Horn of Africa. Humanitarian Aid and the War on Terror' Harvard International Review (March 2007), available at , accessed 30 July 2009.
57. Lischer, 'Winning Hearts and Minds in the Horn of Africa. Humanitarian Aid and the War on Terror' Harvard International Review (March 2007), available at , accessed 30 July 2009 and author interview, USAID representative, Nairobi, 26 Aug. 2008.
58. These statements were made by several AFRICOM proponents including the author whom they are drawn from: S. McFate, 'US African Command: A New Strategic Paradigm?', Military Review (Jan.-Feb. 2008) pp. 11-21.
59. E. Marks, 'Why AFRICOM?', Joint Force Quarterly 52 (First Quarter 2009) pp. 148-151.
60. Although "combatant command" and "unified command" are often used interchangeably, the correct term in US joint doctrine is "geographical combatant command". However, AFRICOM officials recommend that the terms "geographical unified command" as well as "area of activity" be entered into joint doctrine. M. C. Yates, 'US Africa Command: Value Added', Joint Force Quarterly 52 (First Quarter 2009) pp. 153 and 155;
61. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 'Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the United States', Joint Chief of Staff, Joint Publication 1, Washington, DC, May 2007.
62. Former EUCOM official H. Tallent, quoted in L. Ploch, 'AFRICOM: Rationales, Roles and Progress on the Eve of Operations', testimony given before the House Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Washington, DC, 15 July 2008.
63. H. Tallent, 'The Mission of Africom: Enabling Sovereignty', PlanetData. Global Security News, available at , accessed 30 Dec. 2008.
64. Archived welcome message by General William E. Ward, dated 21 Dec. 2007, available at , accessed 27 July 2009.
65. The remainder of the releases is about internal and other news. See news releases available at , accessed 30 July 2009.
66. US Africa Command, 2009 Posture Statement (Stuttgart: US Africa Command March 2009) pp. 13 and 39. AFRICOM additionally facilitates several State Department-funded programmes including the International Military Education and Training, Foreign Military Financing, Foreign Military Sales, Africa Contingency Operations Training and Assistance p. 29.
67. Lischer, 'Winning Hearts and Minds in the Horn of Africa. Humanitarian Aid and the War on Terror' Harvard International Review (March 2007), available at , accessed 30 July 2009.
68. 'Marine Leads Civil Affairs Programme for Village in Djibouti', Africom news release, 25 March 2008, available at , accessed 6 Aug. 2009.
69. See O. Marchart, Cultural Studies (Konstanz: UVK 2008) pp. 79-82.
70. S. Hall, 'Culture, the Media and "Ideological Effect"', in J. Curran, M. Gurevitch, and J. Wollacott (eds.), Mass Communication and Society (London: Arnold 1979) p. 339.
71. This line is taken from the song 'Love and marriage' written by S. Cahn and J. van Heusen.
72. See for a critical discussion M. Duffield, Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples (Cambridge: Polity 2007);
73. L. Buur, S. Jensen, and F. Stepputat (eds.), The Security-Development Nexus. Expressions of Sovereignty and Securitization in Southern Africa (Cape Town: HSRC Press 2007).
74. For an affirmative perspective see R. Picciotto and R. Weaving (eds.), Security and Development. Investing in Peace and Prosperity (London: Routledge 2007).
75. See for a comprehensive genealogy M. Cowen and R. W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London: Routledge 1996).
76. For critical analyses see also Duffield, Development (Cambridge: Polity 2007)
77. V. M. Hewitt, 'A Cautionary Tale: Colonial and Post-Colonial Conceptions of Good Government in Africa', Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 44/1 (2006) pp. 41-61.
78. M. Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars (London: Zed Books 2001).
79. See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect (Ottawa: ICISS 2001) p. 15.
80. The White House, The National Security Strategy of the United States of America (Washington, DC: The White House 2002) p. 1.
81. For a conceptualisation of deficient statehood for development agencies see: OECD/DAC, Poor Performers: Basic Approaches for Supporting Development in Difficult Partnerships (Paris: OECD/DAC Development Co-operation Directorate 2001);
82. World Bank, World Bank Task Group Work in Low Income Countries under Stress (Washington, DC: The World Bank 2001).
83. See for example OECD/DAC, A Development Cooperation Lens on Terrorism Prevention (Paris: OECD/DAC 2003);
84. USAID, Foreign Aid in the National Interest (Washington, DC: USAID 2002);
85. Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Principles Governing Danish Development Assistance for the Fight Against the New Terrorism (Copenhagen: Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2004);
86. Australian Government (AUS Aid), Counterterrorism and Australian Aid (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia).
87. See V. Wheeler and A. Harmer, Resetting the Rules of Engagement: Trends and Issues in Military- Humanitarian Relations (London: ODI Humanitarian Policy Group, Policy Brief 21, March 2006)
88. V. Holt, The Military and Civilian Protection: Developing Roles and Capacities (London: ODI Humanitarian Policy Group, Policy Brief 22, March 2006).
89. A. J. Langguth, Hidden Terrors. The Truth About US Police Operations in Latin America (New York: Pantheon 1978);
90. N. Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie. John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (London: Pimlico 1998);
91. Lefebvre Arms for the Horn. US Security Policy for Ethiopia and Somalia 1953-1991 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1991) p. 146;
92. A. Hills, 'Trojan horses? USAID, Counterterrorism and Africa's police', Third World Quarterly 27/4 (2006) pp. 629-643;
93. M. Leepson, 'The Heart and Mind of USAID' Vietnam Mission', American Foreign Service Association, April 2000, available at , accessed 30 July 2009.
94. Hills, 'Trojan horses? USAID, Counterterrorism and Africa's police', Third World Quarterly 27/4 (2006) pp. 629-643 p. 631. However, in the 1980s the Reagan administration gained an exemption for fighting communists in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala.
95. J. B. Atwood, M. P. McPherson, and A. Natsios, 'Arrested Development', Foreign Affairs 87/6 (Dec. 2008) p. 127.
96. OECD/DAC, Peer Review of the United States 2006 (Paris: OECD/Development Assistance Committee 2006). It needs to be noted that in 2005 two thirds of ODA disbursed by DOD was allocated to the Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund. At the same time the US foreign assistance framework has become fragmented with over twenty different government agencies facilitating or implementing US aid. New schemes such as the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and the Millennium Challenge Account are managed outside USAID.
97. See S. Patrick and K. Brown, The Pentagon and Global Development: Making Sense of the DoD's Expanding Role (Washington DC: Center for Global Development, Working Paper 131, Nov. 2007) p. 4;
98. L. Brainard, 'Organising US Foreign Assistance to Meet Twenty-First Century Challenges', in L. Brainard (ed.), Security By Other Means. Foreign Assistance, Global Poverty, American Leadership (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press) p. 34.
99. P. L. Christenson, 'Testimony before the House Committee on Foreign Relations', Washington, DC, 18 March 2009.
100. Department of Defense, Directive 3000.05 Military Support for Stability, Security, Transition and Reconstruction (SSTR) (Washington DC: Department of Defense, 28 Nov. 2005).
101. Patrick and Brown, The Pentagon and Global Development: Making Sense of the DoD's Expanding Role (Washington DC: Center for Global Development, Working Paper 131, Nov. 2007) p. 5.
102. M. Malan, US Civil-Military Imbalance for Global Engagement (Washington, DC: Refugees International, July 2008) p. 11.
103. E. Edelman, 'Defining the Military's Role Towards Foreign Policy', testimony given before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Washington, DC, 31 July 2008.
104. McFate, 'New Strategic Paradigm?', Military Review (Jan.-Feb. 2008) p. 15.
105. For Fiscal Year 2010 the Pentagon requested $533.8 billion which excludes the requested $130 billion for the support of contingency operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. See Department of Defense, DoD Releases Fiscal 2010 Budget Proposal (Washington DC: Department of Defense, 7 May 2009), available at , accessed 15 July 2009; 'Proposed Military Spending Highest since World War II', New York Times, 4 Feb. 2008.
106. See Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification Foreign Operations Fiscal Year 2010 (Washington, DC: Department of State, 8 May 2009).
107. See for example, Brainard, 'Organising US Foreign Assistance to Meet Twenty-First Century Challenges', in L. Brainard (ed.), Security By Other Means. Foreign Assistance, Global Poverty, American Leadership (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press) p. 34;
108. Atwood, McPherson, and A. Natsios, 'Arrested Development', Foreign Affairs 87/6 (Dec. 2008) p. 127;
109. Modernising Foreign Assistance Network, New Day, New Way. US Foreign Assistance for the 21st Century (Washington, DC: Modernising Foreign Assistance Network, June 2008);
110. Center for American Progress, A National Strategy for Global Development (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, May 2009).
111. R. Gates, speech given at the US Global Leadership Campaign, Washington, DC, 15 July 2008.
112. Center for US Global Engagement, Putting Smart Power to Work (Washington, DC: Center for US Global Engagement 2009).
113. Atwood, McPherson, and Natsios, 'Arrested Development', Foreign Affairs 87/6 (Dec. 2008) p. 128.
114. Modernising Foreign Assistance Network, New Day, New Way. US Foreign Assistance for the 21st Century (Washington, DC: Modernising Foreign Assistance Network, June 2008).
115. Christenson, 'Testimony before the House Committee on Foreign Relations', Washington, DC, 18 March 2009.
116. R. M. Gates, 'A Balanced Strategy. Reprogramming the Pentagon for a New Age', Foreign Affairs 88/1 (Jan./Feb. 2009) p. 31.
117. See also Department of Defense, National Defense Strategy (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, June 2008).
118. US Army, Field Manual 3-24. Counterinsurgency (Washington, DC: Headquarters of the US Army, Dec. 2006);
119. US Army, Field Manual 3-07. Stability Operations (Washington, DC: Headquarters of the US Army, Oct. 2008).
120. US Army, FM 3-07, Field Manual 3-24. Counterinsurgency (Washington, DC: Headquarters of the US Army, Dec. 2006) paras. 1-73.
121. J. Kipp, L. Grau, K. Prinslow, and D. Smith, 'Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st century', Military Review (Sept./Oct. 2006) p. 9.
122. For recent popular books on counterinsurgency see D. Kilcullen, 'Counterinsurgency Redux', Survival 48/4 (Winter 2006/2007) pp. 111-130.
123. D. Marsten and C. Malkasian, Counterinsurgency in Modern Warfare (Oxford, New York: Osprey 2008).
124. Recent programmes initiated by the military or intelligence services include: the Pentagon's Minerva Initiative, for example, provides $50 million for research in strategic areas within the humanities. See the speech given by US Defence Secretary R. Gates at the Association of American Universities, Washington DC, 14 April 2008, available at ; as well as a critique: C. Lutz, 'selling Ourselves? The Perils of Pentagon Funding for Anthropology', Anthropology Today 24/5 (Oct. 2008) pp. 1-3. The CIA's Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Programme funds research projects of students who speak several foreign languages and are focusing in area studies and anthropology in respective regions including the Middle East, South East Asia, Russia, etc. (see the recruiting website at ). In the UK the call for proposals of the Economic and Social Research Council's 'Combating Terrorism by Countering Radicalisation' programme, funded by the Foreign Office and case studies allegedly identified by the British MI5, sparked open protests by several social scientists and had to be withdrawn. According to a first draft researchers were expected to 'name key figures and key groups' and provide research on 'key drivers for radicalisation' as well as on 'future scenarios.' The programme was modified and renamed into 'Radicalisation and Violence: A Critical Assessment'. See 'Life-risking "spy" plan pulled', The Times Higher Education (London), 20 Oct. 2006.
125. M. McFate, and A. Jackson, 'An Organizational Solution for DoD's Cultural Knowledge Needs', Military Review (July 2005).
126. M. McFate, 'Anthropology and Counterinsurgency. The Strange Story of their Curious Relationship', Military Review (March/April 2005).
127. M. McFate, 'Anthropology and Counterinsurgency. The Strange Story of their Curious Relationship', Military Review (March/April 2005).
128. See for a critical overview R. González, American Counterinsurgency. Human Science and The Human Terrain (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm 2009).
129. R. González, 'Human Terrain. Past, Present and Future Application', Anthropology Today 24/1 (Feb. 2008) pp. 21-26.
130. See , accessed 22 Dec. 2008.
131. See , accessed 22 Dec. 2008.
132. For a more detailed account on HTS from the military's point of view see Kipp, Grau, Prinslow, and Smith, 'Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st century', Military Review (Sept./Oct. 2006) p. 11.
133. See American Anthropological Association, 'Executive Board Statement on Human Terrain Systems', press release, Arlington, VA., 31 Oct. 2007.
134. See also the debate between pioneers (D. Kilcullen, M. McFate) and critics (R. González, D. Price, H. Gusterson) of the incorporation of anthropologists into military strategy and operation in Anthropology Today, particularly in 23/3, 23/4 and 23/5 (2007).
135. By mid-2009 three social scientists affiliated to HTT had been killed in Afghanistan and Iraq. The controversy about "mistakes" within HTS practices caused the magazine "Nature" to call for an immediate shutdown of the programme. See 'Failure in the field', Nature 566 (11 Dec. 2008) p. 676.
136. Cited as key to counterinsurgency operations in: US Army, Field Manual 3-24 (Washington, DC: Headquarters of the US Army, Dec. 2006) appendix A, para. A-2.
137. Hearing at the House Appropriations Committee, Subcommittee on Defense, House of Representatives, Washington, DC, 19 March 2009. However, see the discussion in R. Albro, 'Anthropology and the Military. AFRICOM, 'culture' and the future of human terrain analysis', Anthropology Today 26/1 (2010) pp. 22-24.
138. Colonel D. Bland, quoted in 'AFRICOM Building Research Center', Stars and Stripes (European edition, 15 June 2009). AFRICOM officials argue that there is no link to the HTT as AFRICOM has no combat mission on the continent.
139. D. R. J. Penn, 'USAFRICOM. The Militarization of U.S. Foreign Policy?', Joint Force Quarterly 51 (4th quarter 2008) p. 75.
140. R. E. Brigety II, Humanity as a Weapon of War. Sustainable Security and the Role of the US Military (Washington DC: Center for American Progress, June 2008) pp. 6-7.
141. C. F. Wald, 'The Phase Zero Campaign. New Thinking at USEUCOM', Joint Force Quarterly 43 (4th Quarter 2006) pp. 72-75.
142. C. F. Wald, 'The Phase Zero Campaign. New Thinking at USEUCOM', Joint Force Quarterly 43 (4th Quarter 2006) pp. 72-73.
143. C. F. Wald, 'The Phase Zero Campaign. New Thinking at USEUCOM', Joint Force Quarterly 43 (4th Quarter 2006) pp. 72-73.
144. W. E. Ward and T. P. Galvin, 'US Africa Command and the Principle of Active Security', Joint Force Quarterly 51 (4th Quarter 2008) p. 62.
145. W. E. Ward and T. P. Galvin, 'US Africa Command and the Principle of Active Security', Joint Force Quarterly 51 (4th Quarter 2008) p. 62.p. 66.
146. For Kilcullen, 'Counterinsurgency Redux', Survival 48/4 (Winter 2006/2007) pp. 111-130 p. 121, containing disparate adversary networks (rather than killing the enemy) and controlling the conflict ecosystem (rather than total victory) are important differences between "traditional" and current counterinsurgency practices.