Injuries to Officers and Suspects in Police Use-of-Force Cases: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation

Police Quarterly

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 260-289

  Taylor, Bruce ^a,b   Woods, Daniel J ^a  

^a Police Executive Research Forum   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

conducted energy devices; injuries to officers and suspects; nonlethal weapons; police use of force

Indexed keywords

EID: 77955796757     PISSN: 10986111     EISSN: 1552745X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1098611110373994     Document Type: Article

References (59)

1. Adams, K. (1995). Measuring the prevalence of police abuse of force. In W. A. Geller & H. Toch (Eds.), And justice for all: Understanding and controlling police abuse of force (pp. 61-98). Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
2. Adang, O., Kaminski, R., Howell, M., & Mensink, J. (2006). Assessing the performance of pepper spray in use-of-force encounters: The Dutch experience. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 29, 282-305.
3. Alpert, G.P., & Dunham, R.G. (2000). Analysis of police use of force data. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
4. Alpert, G.P., & Dunham, R.G. (2004). Understanding police use of force: Officers, suspects, and reciprocity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
5. American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California. (1995). Pepper spray update: More fatalities, more questions. Retrieved October 15, 2008, from http://www.aclu-sc.org/attach/p/Pepper_Spray_New_Questions.pdf.
6. Amnesty International. (1997). USA: Police use of pepper spray-tantamount to torture. Retrieved May 14, 2010, from http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR51/067/1997/en/98eef052-525e- 4eda-9ae5-81ce10a68cc9/amr510671997en.pdf.
7. Amnesty International. (2004). Excessive and lethal force? Amnesty International's concerns about deaths and ill-treatment involving police use of Tasers. Retrieved May 14, 2010, from http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR51/139/2004/en/48fc6252-d581- 11dd-bb24-1fb85fe8fa05/amr511392004en.html.
8. Asher, H. (1983). Causal modeling. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
9. Berk, R.A., Boruch, R.F., Chambers, D.L., Rossi, P.H., & Witte, A.D. (1985). Social policy experimentation: A position paper. Evaluation Review, 9, 387-429.
10. Boruch, R.F., McSweeny, A.J., & Soderstrom, E.J. (1978). Randomized field experiments for program planning, development, and evaluation. Evaluation Quarterly, 2, 655-695.
11. Brandl, S. (1996). In the line of duty: A descriptive analysis of police assaults and accidents. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24, 255-264.
12. Brandl, S.G., & Stroshine, M.S. (2003). Toward an understanding of the physical hazards of police work. Police Quarterly, 6, 172-191.
13. Campbell, D.T., & Stanley, J.S. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
14. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department. (2006). Taser® project: First year-full deployment study. Charlotte, NC: Author. Retrieved December 26, 2006, from http://www.charmeck.org/NR/rdonlyres/e2alrn6jzttfx35m2gwabbqjzhlahc567iw aeusye62e5iz6amtldfmv4mel3ojqzq3qtzd375dhuii4ozio7y3estb/1+year+taser+st udy.pdf.
15. Dennis, M.L., & Boruch, R.F. (1989). Randomized experiments for planning and testing projects in developing countries: Threshold conditions. Evaluation Review, 13, 292-309.
16. Edwards, S.M., Granfield, J., & Onnen, J. (1997). Evaluation of pepper spray. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
17. Garner, J., Maxwell, C., & Heraux, C.G. (2002). Characteristics associated with the prevalence and severity of force used by the police. Justice Quarterly, 19, 705-746.
18. Gauvin, R. (1994). Oleoresin capsicum spray: A progress report. Portland, OR: Portland Police Department, Internal Affairs Unit.
19. Gauvin, R. (1995, May/June). Oleoresin capsicum spray: A progress report. ASLET Journal, 29-32.
20. General Accounting Office. (2005). Taser weapons: Use of Tasers by selected law enforcement agencies. Washington, D.C.: Author.
21. Granfield, J., Onnen, J., & Petty, C.S. (1994). Pepper spray and in-custody deaths. Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police.
22. Handberg, R., Unkovic, C.M., & Feuerstein, J. (1986). Organizational and ecological explanations for violence against the police: A preliminary analysis. International Review of History and Political Science, 23, 1-14.
23. Henriquez, M. (1999). IACP national database project on police use of force. In Use of force by police: Overview of national and local data (pp. 19-24). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics.
24. Hickman, M.J., Piquero, A.R., & Garner, J.H. (2008). Toward a national estimate of police use of nonlethal force. Criminology & Public Policy, 7, 563-604.
25. Huber, P.J. (1967). The behavior of maximum likelihood estimates under nonstandard conditions. In L. M. Le Cam & J. Neyman (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, Volume 1 (pp. 221-223). Berkeley: University of California Press.
26. International Association of Chiefs of Police. (1995). Pepper Spray Evaluation Project: Results of the introduction of oleoresin capsicum (OC) into the Baltimore County, MD, Police Department (Final report submitted to the National Institute of Justice). Alexandria, VA: Author.
27. Jenkinson, E., Neeson, C., & Bleetman, A. (2006). The relative risk of police use-of-force options: Evaluating the potential for deployment of electronic weaponry. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine, 13, 229-241.
28. Kaminski, Robert John (2002). An opportunity model of police homicide victimization. Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, United States - New York. Retrieved May 28, 2010, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3053970).
29. Kaminski, R.J., DiGiovanni, C., & Downs, R. (2004). The use of force between the police and persons with impaired judgment. Police Quarterly, 7, 311-338.
30. Kaminski, R.J., Edwards, S.M., & Johnson, J.W. (1998). The deterrent effects of oleoresin capsicum on assaults against police: Testing the velcro-effect hypothesis. Police Quarterly, 1, 1-20.
31. Kaminski, R.J., Edwards, S.M., & Johnson, J.W. (1999). Assessing the incapacitative effects of pepper spray during resistive encounters with the police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 22, 7-29.
32. Kaminski, R.J., & Sorensen, D.W.M. (1995). A multivariate analysis of individual, situational, and environmental factors associated with police assault injuries. American Journal of Police, 14(3/4), 3-48.
33. Kershaw, S. (2004, March 7). As shocks replace police bullets, deaths drop but questions arise. The New York Times. Retrieved May 14, 2010, from http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/07/national/07TASE.html.
34. Kingshott, B. (1992). Do we need a graded response to violent situations? Police Journal, 65, 297-307.
35. Long, J.S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
36. Lumb, R.C., & Friday, P.C. (1997). Impact of pepper spray availability on police officer use-of force decisions. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategy and Management, 20, 136-148.
37. Meyer, G. (1992). Nonlethal weapons vs. conventional police tactics: Assessing injuries and liabilities. Police Chief, 59, 10-17.
38. Morabito, E.V., & Doerner, W.G. (1997). Police use of less-than-lethal force: Oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 20, 680-697.
39. National Institute of Justice. (2003). The effectiveness and safety of pepper spray (Research for practice). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
40. Nowicki, E. (1993). Oleoresin capsicum: A non-lethal force alternative. Law Enforcement Technology, 20, 24-27.
41. Petty, C.S. (2004). Deaths in police confrontations when oleoresin capsicum is used: Final report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
42. Phillips, S.W. (1994). Oleoresin capsicum in buffalo (Technical Report 04-95). Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Police Research Centre.
43. Police Executive Research Forum. (2005). PERF conducted energy device policy and training guidelines for consideration. Washington, DC: PERF Center on Force & Accountability.
44. Robin, G. (1996). The elusive and illuminating search for less-than-lethal alternatives to deadly force. Police Forum, 62, 1-8.
45. Rogers, W.H. (1993). Regression standard errors in clustered samples. Stata Technical Bulletin Reprints, 3, 88-94. (Reprinted from Stata Technical Bulletin, 13, pp. 19-23).
46. Seattle Police Department. (2002). The M26 Taser® year one implementation. Seattle, WA: Author.
47. Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D., & Campbell, D.T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
48. Smith, M.R., & Alpert, G.P. (2000). Pepper spray: A safe and reasonable response to suspect verbal resistance. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategy and Management, 23, 233-245.
49. Smith, M.R., Kaminski, R.J., Alpert, G.P., Fridell, L.A., MacDonald, J., & Kubu, B. (2008). A multi-method evaluation of police use of force outcomes: Final report to the National Institute of Justice. Retrieved May 15, 2010, from http://www.cas.sc.edu/crju/pdfs/taser_final.pdf.
50. Smith, M.R., Kaminski, R.J., Rojek, J., Alpert, G.P., & Mathis, J. (2007). The impact of conducted energy devices and other types of force and resistance on police and suspect injuries. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 30, 443-426.
51. Smith, M.R., & Petrocelli, M. (2002). The effectiveness of force used by police in making arrests. Police Practice and Research, 3, 201-215.
52. Taylor, B.G., Woods, D., Kubu, B., Koper, C., Tegeler, B., Cheney, J.,et al.(2009). Police use of force and injury outcomes for officers and suspects: Results from a quasi-experiment (Final Report, National Institute of Justice). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
53. Trochim, W., Cappelleri, J., & Reichardt, C.S. (1991). Random measurement error does not bias the treatment effect estimate in the regression-discontinuity design: When an interaction effect is present. Evaluation Review, 15, 571-604.
54. U.S. Department of Justice. (1999). Use of force by police: Overview of national and local data (NCJ 176330). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
55. White, H. (1980). A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity. Econometrica, 48, 817-830.
56. Williams, R.L. (2000). A note on robust variance estimation for cluster-correlated data. Biometrics, 56, 645-646.
57. Wilmette, A. (2001). The Jaycor pepperball system. Law and Order, 11, 92-95.
58. Wilson, J.Q. (1975). Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities. New York: NY: Atheneum.
59. Wooldridge, J.M. (2002). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.