Environmental and human health risks of aerosolized silver nanoparticles

Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association

Volumn 60, Issue 7, 2010, Pages 770-781

  Quadros, Marina E ^a   Marr, Linsey C ^a  

^a State University   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOLS; CONSUMER PRODUCTS; CRYSTAL STRUCTURE; FLAME SPRAYING; HEALTH; HEALTH RISKS; METAL IONS; METAL NANOPARTICLES; THERMAL EVAPORATION; TOXICITY;

ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS; ANTI-MICROBIAL EFFECTS; CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION; NANOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS; PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES; SILVER NANOPARTICLES (AGNPS);

SILVER NANOPARTICLES;

REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SILVER NANOPARTICLE;

AEROSOL; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CHEMICAL VAPORIZATION; CRYSTAL STRUCTURE; CYTOTOXICITY; DRY POWDER DISPERSION; ECOTOXICITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; HEALTH HAZARD; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION; LIQUID FLAME SPRAY; LIVER FUNCTION; MANUAL HANDLING; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARTICLE SIZE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SPRAY ATOMIZATION; SURFACE PROPERTY; THERMAL EVAPORATION CONDENSATION; TOXIC INHALATION; TOXICOKINETICS; VISION; WASTE DISPOSAL;

EID: 77955611530     PISSN: 10962247     EISSN: 21622906     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3155/1047-3289.60.7.770     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Oberdorster, G.; Oberdorster, E.; Oberdorster, J. Nanotoxicology: an Emerging Discipline Evolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles; Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 823-839.
2. Maynard, A.D. Nanotechnology: a Strategy for Addressing Risk; Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars: Washington, DC, 2006; p 45.
3. Sung, J.H.; Ji, J.H.; Yoon, J.U.; Kim, D.S.; Song, M.Y.; Jeong, J.; Han, B.S.; Han, J.H.; Chung, Y.H.; Kim, J.; Kim, T.S.; Chang, H.K.; Lee, E.J.; Lee, J.H.; Yu, I.J. Lung Function Changes in Sprague-Dawley Rats after Prolonged Inhalation Exposure to Silver Nanoparticles; Inhal. Toxicol. 2008, 20, 567-574.
4. Luoma, S.N. Silver Nanotechnologies and the Environment: Old Problems or New Challenges? Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars: Washington, DC, 2008; p 72.
5. McMahon, M.D.; Lopez, R.; Meyer, H.M., III; Feldman, L.C.; Haglund, R.F. J. Rapid Tarnishing of Silver Nanoparticles in Ambient Laboratory Air; Appl. Phys. B: Lasers Opt. 2005, B80, 915-921.
6. Cao, G. Nanostructures & Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties & Applications; Imperial College: London, U.K., 2004; Vol. 1, p 433.
7. Albrecht, M.A.; Evans, C.W.; Raston, C.L. Green Chemistry and the Health Implications of Nanoparticles; Green Chem. 2006, 8, 417-432.
8. Limbach, L.K.; Wick, P.; Manser, P.; Grass, R.N.; Bruinink, A.; Stark, W.J. Exposure of Engineered Nanoparticles to Human Lung Epithelial Cells: Influence of Chemical Composition and Catalytic Activity on Oxidative Stress; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 4158-4163.
9. Duffin, R.; Lang, T.; Brown, D.; Stone, V.; Donaldson, K. Proinflammogenic Effects of Low-Toxicity and Metal Nanoparticles in Vivo and in Vitro: Highlighting the Role of Particle Surface Area and Surface Reactivity; Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 849-856. (Pubitemid 47237750)
10. Ji, J.H.; Bae, G.N.; Yun, S.H.; Jung, J.H.; Noh, H.S.; Kim, S.S. Evaluation of a Silver Nanoparticle Generator Using a Small Ceramic Heater for Inactivation of S. Epidermidis Bioaerosols; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 786-793.
11. Grassian, V.H. When Size Really Matters: Size-Dependent Properties and Surface Chemistry of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Gas and Liquid Phase Environments; J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112, 18303-18313.
12. Lead, J.R.; Wilkinson, K.J. In Environmental Colloids and Particles; Buffe, J.; Leeuwen, H.P.V., Eds.; International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: Research Triangle Park, NC, 2007; Vol. 10, p 687.
13. Drake, P.L.; Hazelwood, K.J. Exposure-Related Health Effects of Silver and Silver Compounds: a Review; Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2005, 49, 575-585. (Pubitemid 41442683)
14. Chen, X.; Schluesener, H. J. Nanosilver: a Nanoproduct in Medical Application; Toxicol. Lett. 2008, 176, 1-12.
15. Wijnhoven, S.W.P.; Peijnenburg, W.J.G.M.; Herberts, C.A.; Hagens, W.I.; Oomen, A.G.; Heugens, E.H.W.; Roszek, B.; Bisschops, J.; Gosens, I.; Van De Meent, D.; Dekkers, S.; De Johg, W.H.; van Zijverden, M.; Sips, A.J.A.M.; Geertsma, R.E. Nano-Silver - a Review of Available Data and Knowledge Gaps in Human and Environmental Risk Assessment; Nanotoxicology 2009, 3, 109-138.
16. Integrated Risk Information System: Silver (CASRN7440-22-4); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; available at http://www.epa.gov/IRIS/subst/ 0099.htm (accessed October 14, 2008).
17. Arora, S.; Jain, J.; Rajwade, J.M.; Paknikar, K.M. Cellular Responses Induced by Silver Nanoparticles: in Vitro Studies; Toxicol. Lett. 2008, 179, 93-100.
18. Nanotechnology White Paper; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2005; p 134.
19. Kumar, A.; Vemula, P.K.; John, G. Silver-Nanoparticle-Embedded Antimicrobial Paints Based on Vegetable Oil; Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 236-241. (Pubitemid 351311299)
20. Soto, K.; Garza, K.M.; Murr, L.E. Cytotoxic Effects of Aggregated Nanomaterials; Acta Biomater. 2007, 3, 351-358.
21. Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska, G.; Golimowski, J.; Urban, P.L. Nanoparticles: Their Potential Toxicity, Waste and Environmental Management; Waste Manage. 2009, 29 2587-2595.
22. Card, J.W.; Zeldin, D.C.; Bonner, J.C.; Nestmann, E.R. Pulmonary Applications and Toxicity of Engineered Nanoparticles; Am. J. Physiol. 2008, 295, L400-L411.
23. Klaine, S.J.; Alvarez, P.J.J.; Batley, G.E.; Fernandes, T.F.; Handy, R.D.; Lyon, D.Y.; Mahendra, S.; McLaughlin, M.J.; Lead, J.R. Nanomaterials in the Environment: Behavior, Fate, Bioavailability, and Effects; Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2008, 27, 1825-1851.
24. Oberdorster, G.; Stone, V.; Donaldson, K. Toxicology of Nanoparticles: a Historical Perspective; Nanotoxicology 2007, 1, 2-25.
25. Sharma, V.K.; Yngard, R.A.; Lin, Y. Silver Nanoparticles: Green Synthesis and Their Antimicrobial Activities; Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2009, 145, 83-96.
26. Howe, P.D.; Dobson, S. Silver and Silver Compounds: Environmental Aspects; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002; p 50.
27. Filella, M. In Environmental Colloids and Particles; Wilkinson, K.J., Lead, J.R., Eds.; International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: Research Triangle Park, NC, 2007; Vol. 10, p 687.
28. Seinfeld, J.H.; Pandis, S.N. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 1st ed.; Wiley: New York, 1997; Vol. 1, p 1326.
29. Hinds, W.C. Aerosol Technology, 2nd ed.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 1999; p 483.
30. Basunia, M.S.; Landsberger, S.; Yli-Tuomi, T.; Hopke, P.K.; Wishinski, P.; Paatero, J.; Viisanen, Y. Ambient Silver Concentration Anomaly in the Finnish Arctic Lower Atmosphere; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37, 5537-5544. (Pubitemid 37541722)
31. Ji, J.H.; Jung, J.H.; Kim, S.S.; Yoon, J.U.; Park, J.D.; Choi, B.S.; Chung, Y.H.; Kwon, I.H.; Jeong, J.; Han, B.S.; Shin, J.H.; Sung, J.H.; Song, K.S.; Yu, I.J. Twenty-Eight-Day Inhalation Toxicity Study of Silver Nanoparticles in Sprague-Dawley Rats; Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 857-871. (Pubitemid 47237748)
32. Ji, J.H.; Jung, J.H.; Yu, I.J.; Kim, S.S. Long-Term Stability Characteristics of Metal Nanoparticle Generator Using Small Ceramic Heater for Inhalation Toxicity Studies; Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 745-751.
33. Harper, M.; Pacolay, B. A Comparison of X-Ray Fluorescence and Wet Chemical Analysis for Lead on Air Filters from Different Personal Samplers Used in a Secondary Lead Smelter/Solder Manufacturer; J. Environ. Monit. 2006, 8, 140-146. (Pubitemid 43362496)
34. Yeganeh, B.; Kull, C.M.; Hull, M.S.; Marr, L.C. Characterization of Airborne Particles during Production of Carbonaceous Nanomaterials; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 4600-4606. (Pubitemid 351842412)
35. Maynard, A.D.; Baron, P.A.; Foley, M.; Shvedova, A.A.; Kisin, E.R.; Castranova, V. Exposure to Carbon Nanotube Material: Aerosol Release during the Handling of Unrefined Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Material; J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 2004, 67, 87-107. (Pubitemid 38117533)
36. Mazzuckelli, L.F.; Methner, M.M.; Birch, M.E.; Evans, D.E.; Ku, B.K.; Crouch, K.; Hoover, M.D. Identification and Characterization of Potential Sources of Worker Exposure to Carbon Nanofibers during Polymer Composite Laboratory Operations; J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2007, 4, D125-D130.
37. Tabrizi, N.S.; Ullmann, M.; Vons, V.A.; Lafont, U.; Schmidt-Ott, A. Generation of Nanoparticles by Spark Discharge; J. Nanopart. Res. 2009, 11, 315-332.
38. Rejeski, D. An Inventory of Nanotechnology-Based Consumer Products Currently on the Market; available at http://www.nanotechproject.org/ inventories/consumer (accessed November 30, 2008).
39. Fauss, E. The Silver Nanotechnology Commercial Inventory; Project on Emerging Technologies: Charlottesville, VA, 2008.
40. Carbone, F.; Barone, A.; Pagliara, R.; Beretta, F.; D'Anna, A.; D'Alessio, A. Ultrafine Particles Formed by Heating Droplets of Simulated Ash Containing Metals; Environ. Eng. Sci. 2008, 25, 1379-1387.
41. Sanchez-Monedero, M.A.; Aguilar, M.I.; Fenoll, R.; Roig, A. Effect of the Aeration System on the Levels of Airborne Microorganisms Generated at Wastewater Treatment Plants; Water Res. 2008, 42, 3739-3744.
42. Fernando, N.L.; Fedorak, P.M. Changes at an Activated Sludge Sewage Treatment Plant Alter the Numbers of Airborne Aerobic Microorganisms; Water Res. 2005, 39, 4597-4608. (Pubitemid 41608499)
43. Karra, S.; Katsivela, E. Microorganisms in Bioaerosol Emissions from Wastewater Treatment Plants during Summer at a Mediterranean Site; Water Res. 2007, 41, 1355-1365. (Pubitemid 46298887)
44. Oppliger, A.; Hilfiker, S.; Trinh Vu, D. Influence of Seasons and Sampling Strategy on Assessment of Bioaerosols in Sewage Treatment Plants in Switzerland; Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2005, 49, 393-400.
45. Heel, A.; Seipenbusch, M.; Weber, A.P.; Kasper, G. On-Line Method for Evaluation of Nanoparticle Coatings; J. Aerosol Sci. 2000, 31, 636-637.
46. Shin, W.G.; Mulholland, G.W.; Kim, S.C.; Pui, D.Y.H. Experimental Study of Filtration Efficiency of Nanoparticles below 20 nm at Elevated Temperatures; J. Aerosol Sci. 2008, 39, 488-499.
47. Wang, J.; Flagan, R.C.; Seinfeld, J.H. Diffusional Losses in Particle Sampling Systems Containing Bends and Elbows; J. Aerosol Sci. 2002, 33, 843-857.
48. Dailey, L.A.; Schmehl, T.; Gessler, T.; Wittmar, M.; Grimminger, F.; Seeger, W.; Kissel, T. Nebulization of Biodegradable Nanoparticles: Impact of Nebulizer Technology and Nanoparticle Characteristics on Aerosol Features; J. Controlled Release 2003, 86, 131-144. (Pubitemid 35461980)
49. Hogrefe, O.; Drewnick, F.; Lala, G.G.; Schwab, J.J.; Demerjian, K.L. Development, Operation and Applications of an Aerosol Generation, Calibration and Research Facility; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 196-214.
50. Ma-Hock, L.; Gamer, A.O.; Landsiedel, R.; Leibold, E.; Frechen, T.; Sens, B.; Linsenbuehler, M.; van Ravenzwaay, B. Generation and Characterization of Test Atmospheres with Nanomaterials; Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 833-848.
51. Skillas, G.; Tobler, L.; Beeli, C.; Burtscher, H.; Siegmann, K.; Baltensperger, U. On the Density of Silver Nanoparticles: a Comparison; J. Aerosol Sci. 1999, 30, S493-S494.
52. Yoon, K.Y.; Byeon, J.H.; Park, J.H.; Ji, J.H.; Bae, G.N.; Hwang, J. Antimicrobial Characteristics of Silver Aerosol Nanoparticles against BacillussSubtilis Bioaerosols; Environ. Eng. Sci. 2008, 25, 289-293. (Pubitemid 351363927)
53. Keskinen, H.; Makela, J.M.; Vippola, M.; Nurminen, M.; Liimatainen, J.; Lepisto, T.; Keskinen, J. Generation of Silver/Palladium Nanoparticles by Liquid Flame Spray; J. Mat. Res. 2004, 19, 1544-1550.
54. Pingali, K.C.; Rockstraw, D.A.; Deng, S. Silver Nanoparticles from Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis of Aqueous Silver Nitrate; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 1010-1014. (Pubitemid 43020386)
55. Sahm, T.; Weizhi, R.; Barsan, N.; Madler, L.; Friedlander, S.K.; Weimar, U. Formation of Multilayer Films for Gas Sensing by In Situ Thermophoretic Deposition of Nanoparticles from Aerosol Phase; J. Mat. Res. 2007, 22, 850-857. (Pubitemid 46629469)
56. Yook, S.-J.; Pui, D.Y.H. Experimental Study of Nanoparticle Penetration Efficiency through Coils of Circular Cross-Sections; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 456-462.
57. Ku, B.K.; Maynard, A.D. Generation and Investigation of Airborne Silver Nanoparticles with Specific Size and Morphology by Homogeneous Nucleation, Coagulation and Sintering; J. Aerosol Sci. 2006, 37, 452-470.
58. Jiang, J.; Hogan, C.J.; Chen, D.-R.; Biswas, P. Aerosol Charging and Capture in the Nanoparticle Size Range (6-15 nm) by Direct Photoionization and Diffusion Mechanisms; J. Appl. Phys. 2007, 102, 0349041-0349047.
59. Jung, J.H.; Cheol Oh, H.; Soo Noh, H.; Ji, J.H.; Soo Kim, S. Metal Nanoparticle Generation Using a Small Ceramic Heater with a Local Heating Area; J. Aerosol Sci. 2006, 37, 1662-1670. (Pubitemid 44780750)
60. Jung, J.H.; Park, H.H.; Kim, S.S. Effects of Corona Discharge Ions on the Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles by a Supersonic Nozzle Expansion Method; J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 2007, 25, 169-174.
61. Muir, D.C.F.; Cena, K. Generation of Ultrafine Silver Aerosols for Inhalation Studies; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 1987, 6, 303-306. (Pubitemid 17598246)
62. Sipila, M.; Lushnikov, A.A.; Khriachtchev, L.; Kulmala, M.; Tervahattu, H.; Rasanen, M. Experimental Observation of Two-Photon Photoelectric Effect from Silver Aerosol Nanoparticles; New J. Phys. 2007, 9, 368.1-368.10. (Pubitemid 47584359)
63. Song, D.K.; Moon Lee, H.; Chang, H.; Soo Kim, S.; Shimada, M.; Okuyama, K. Performance Evaluation of Long Differential Mobility Analyzer (LDMA) in Measurements of Nanoparticles; J. Aerosol Sci. 2006, 37, 598-615. (Pubitemid 44308156)
64. Mao, S.; Lu, G.; Chen, J. Carbon-Nanotube-Assisted Transmission Electron Microscopy Characterization of Aerosol Nanoparticles; J. Aerosol Sci. 2009, 40, 180-184.
65. Tien, D.-C.; Tseng, K.-H.; Liao, C.-Y.; Tsung, T.-T. Colloidal Silver Fabrication Using the Spark Discharge System and its Antimicrobial Effect on Staphylococcus aureus; Med. Eng. Phys. 2008, 30, 948-952.
66. Tsai, S.J.; Ada, E.; Isaacs, J.A.; Ellenbecker, M.J. Airborne Nanoparticle Exposures Associated with the Manual Handling of Nanoalumina and Nanosilver in Fume Hoods; J. Nanopart. Res. 2009, 11, 147-161.
67. Oberdorster, G.; Oberdorster, E.; Oberdorster, J. Concepts of Nanoparticle Dose Metric and Response Metric; Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, A290-A290. (Pubitemid 46902229)
68. Marr, L.C.; Dzepina, K.; Jimenez, J.L.; Reisen, F.; Bethel, H.L.; Arey, J.; Gaffney, J.S.; Marley, N.A.; Molina, L.T.; Molina, M.J. Sources and Transformations of Particle-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Mexico City; Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2006, 6, 1733-1745.
69. Teeguarden, J.G.; Hinderliter, P.M.; Orr, G.; Thrall, B.D.; Pounds, J.G. Particokinetics in Vitro: Dosimetry Considerations for in Vitro Nanoparticle Toxicity Assessments; Toxicol. Sci. 2007, 95, 300-312.
70. Prather, K.A.; Hatch, C.D.; Grassian, V.H. Analysis of Atmospheric Aerosols; Ann. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2008, 1, 485-514.
71. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Chemical Sampling Information. Silver, Metal & Soluble Compounds (as Ag); U.S. Department of Labor: Washington, DC, 2005; p 3.
72. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. ICP Analysis of Metal/Metalloid Particulates from Solder Operations; U.S. Department of Labor: Washington, DC, 1985; p 13.
73. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Metal & Metalloid Particulates in Workplace Atmospheres (Atomic Absorption); U.S. Department of Labor: Washington, DC, 1985; p 25.
74. Drake, P.L.; Marcy, A.D.; Ashley, K. Evaluation of a Standardized Method for Determining Soluble Silver in Workplace Air Samples; J. Environ. Monit. 2006, 8, 134-139. (Pubitemid 43362495)
75. Wang, H.C.; Kasper, G. Filtration Efficiency of Nanometer-Size Aerosol- Particles; J. Aerosol Sci. 1991, 22, 31-41.
76. Heim, M.; Mullins, B.J.; Wild, M.; Meyer, J.; Kasper, G. Filtration Efficiency of Aerosol Particles below 20 Nanometers; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 782-789. (Pubitemid 41361597)
77. Lin, X.Z.; Teng, X.; Yang, H. Direct Synthesis of Narrowly Dispersed Silver Nanoparticles Using a Single-Source Precursor; Langmuir 2003, 19, 10081-10085.
78. Hyun, J.-S.; Lee, B.S.; Ryu, H.Y.; Sung, J.H.; Chung, K.H.; Yu, I.J. Effects of Repeated Silver Nanoparticles Exposure on the Histological Structure and Mucins of Nasal Respiratory Mucosa in Rats; Toxicol. Lett. 2008, 182, 24-28.
79. Gonzalez, D.; Nasibulin, A.G.; Baklanov, A.M.; Shandakov, S.D.; Brown, D.P.; Queipo, P.; Kauppinen, E.I. A New Thermophoretic Precipitator for Collection of Nanometer-Sized Aerosol Particles; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 1064-1071.
80. Griffitt, R.J.; Luo, J.; Gao, J.; Bonzongo, J.C.; Barber, D.S. Effects of Particle Composition and Species on Toxicity of Metallic Nanomaterials in Aquatic Organisms; Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2008, 27, 1972-1978.
81. Maynard, A.D. Estimating Aerosol Surface Area from Number and Mass Concentration Measurements; Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2003, 47, 123-144.
82. J-Fatokun, F.O.; Morawska, L.; Jamriska, M.; Jayaratne, E.R. Application of Aerosol Electrometer for Ambient Particle Charge Measurements; Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42, 8827-8830.
83. Bang, J.J.; Murr, L.E. Collecting and Characterizing Atmospheric Nanoparticles; JOM 2002, 54, 28-30.
84. Bang, J.J.; Trillo, E.A.; Murr, L.E. Utilization of Selected Area Electron Diffraction Patterns for Characterization of Air Submicron Particulate Matter Collected by a Thermophoretic Precipitator; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2003, 53, 227-236.
85. Oberdorster, G.; Maynard, A.; Donaldson, K.; Castranova, V.; Fitzpatrick, J.; Ausman, K.; Carter, J.; Karn, B.; Kreyling, W.; Lai, D.; Olin, S.; Monteiro-Riviere, N.; Warheit, D.; Yang, H.; ILSI Research Foundation/Risk Science Institute Nanomaterial Toxicity Screening Working Group. Principles for Characterizing the Potential Human Health Effects from Exposure to Nanomaterials: Elements of a Screening Strategy; Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2005, 2, 8.
86. Warheit, D.B. How Meaningful Are the Results of Nanotoxicity Studies in the Absence of Adequate Material Characterization? Toxicol. Sci. 2008, 101, 183-185.
87. Borm, P.J.; Robbins, D.; Haubold, S.; Kuhlbusch, T.; Fissan, H.; Donaldson, K.; Schins, R.; Stone, V.; Kreyling, W.; Lademann, J.; Krutmann, J.; Warheit, D.; Oberdorster, E. The Potential Risks of Nanomaterials: a Review Carried out for ECETOC; Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2006, 3, 11. (Pubitemid 44530044)
88. Grassian, V.H. New Directions: Nanodust - a Source of Metals in the Atmospheric Environment? Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43 4666-4667.
89. Chow, J.C.; Watson, J.G.; Edgerton, S.A.; Vega, E. Chemical Composition of PM2.5 and PM10 in Mexico City during Winter 1997; Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 287, 177-201. (Pubitemid 32611728)
90. Lee, S.-H.; Murphy, D.M.; Thomson, D.S.; Middlebrook, A.M. Chemical Components of Single Particles Measured with Particle Analysis by Laser Mass Spectrometry (PALMS) during the Atlanta Supersite Project: Focus on Organic/Sulfate, Lead, Soot, and Mineral Particles; J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107, 4003; doi: 10.1029/2000JD000011.
91. Warburton, J.A.; Maher, C.T. Detection of Silver in Rainwater: Analysis of Precipitation Collected from Cloud-Seeding Experiments; J. Appl. Meteorol. 1965, 4, 540-543.
92. Asgharian, B.; Price, O.T. Deposition of Ultrafine (Nano) Particles in the Human Lung; Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 1045-1054. (Pubitemid 350034850)
93. Fabrega, J.; Fawcett, S.R.; Renshaw, J.C.; Lead, J.R. Silver Nanoparticle Impact on Bacterial Growth: Effect of pH, Concentration, and Organic Matter; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 7285-7290.
94. Gao, J.; Youn, S.; Hovsepyan, A.; Llaneza, V.L.; Wang, Y.; Bitton, G.; Bonzongo, J.C.J. Dispersion and Toxicity of Selected Manufactured Nanomaterials in Natural River Water Samples: Effects of Water Chemical Composition; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 3322-3328.
95. Lok, C.N.; Ho, C.M.; Chen, R.; He, Q.Y.; Yu, W.Y.; Sun, H.; Tam, P.K.H.; Chiu, J.F.; Che, C.M. Silver Nanoparticles: Partial Oxidation and Antibacterial Activities; J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 2007, 12, 527-534.
96. Khaydarov, R.R.; Khaydarov, R.A.; Estrin, Y.; Evgrafova, S.; Scheper, T.; Endres, C.; Cho, S.Y. In Nanomaterials: Risks and Benefits; Linkov, I., Steevens, J., Eds.; Springer Sciences: Faro, Portugal, 2009; pp 287-297.
97. Navarro, E.; Piccapietra, F.; Wagner, B.; Marconi, F.; Kaegi, R.; Odzak, N.; Sigg, L.; Behra, R. Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles to Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 8959-8964.
98. Choi, O.K.; Hu, Z.Q. Nitrification Inhibition by Silver Nanoparticles; Water Sci. Technol. 2009, 59, 1699-1702.
99. Ratte, H.T. Bioaccumulation and Toxicity of Silver Compounds: a Review; Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1999, 18, 89-108.
100. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication 2005-149: Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, 2005.
101. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Safety and Health Topic: Nanotechnology - Critical Topic Areas; NIOSH; available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nanotech/critical.html#exp (accessed June 2009).
102. Nanotechnology; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; available at http://www.epa.gov/ncer/nano (accessed June 2009).
103. Ayres, J.G.; Borm, P.; Cassee, F.R.; Castranova, V.; Donaldson, K.; Ghio, A.; Harrison, R.M.; Hider, R.; Kelly, F.; Kooter, I.M.; Marano, F.; Maynard, R.L.; Mudway, I.; Nel, A.; Sioutas, C.; Smith, S.; Baeza- Squiban, A.; Cho, A.; Duggan, S.; Froines, J. Evaluating the Toxicity of Airborne Particulate Matter and Nanoparticles by Measuring Oxidative Stress Potential - a Workshop Report and Consensus Statement; Inhal. Toxicol. 2008, 20, 75-99. (Pubitemid 351194921)
104. Park, S.; Lee, Y.K.; Jung, M.; Kim, K.H.; Chung, N.; Ahn, E.-K.; Lim, Y.; Lee, K.-H. Cellular Toxicity of Various Inhalable Metal Nanoparticles on Human Alveolar Epithelial Cells; Inhal. Toxicol. 2007, 19, 59-65.
105. Soto, K.F.; Carrasco, A.; Powell, T.G.; Garza, K.M.; Murr, L.E. Comparative in Vitro Cytotoxicity Assessment of Some Manufactured Nanoparticulate Materials Characterized by Transmission Electron Microscopy; J. Nanopart. Res. 2005, 7, 145-169.
106. Soto, K.F.; Carrasco, A.; Powell, T.G.; Murr, L.E.; Garza, K.M. Biological Effects of Nanoparticulate Materials; Mat. Sci. Eng. 2006, 26, 1421-1427.
107. Hussain, S.M.; Hess, K.L.; Gearhart, J.M.; Geiss, K.T.; Schlager, J.J. In Vitro Toxicity of Nanoparticles in Brl 3a Rat Liver Cells; Toxicol. In Vitro 2005, 19, 975-983.
108. Murr, L.E.; Garza, K.M. Natural and Anthropogenic Environmental Nanoparticulates: Their Microstructural Characterization and Respiratory Health Implications; Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43, 2683-2692.
109. Lubick, N. Nanosilver Toxicity: Ions, Nanoparticles or Both? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 8617-8617.
110. Sung, J.H.; Ji, J.H.; Park, J.D.; Yoon, J.U.; Kim, D.S.; Jeon, K.S.; Song, M.Y.; Jeong, J.; Han, B.S.; Han, J.H.; Chung, Y.H.; Chang, H.K.; Lee, J.H.; Cho, M.H.; Kelman, B.J.; Yu, I.J. Subchronic Inhalation Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles; Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 108, 452-461.
111. Tang, J.L.; Xiong, L.; Wang, S.; Wang, J.Y.; Liu, L.; Li, J.G.; Yuan, F.Q.; Xi, T.F. Distribution, Translocation and Accumulation of Silver Nanoparticles in Rats; J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2009, 9, 4924-4932.
112. Rosenman, K.D.; Moss, A.; Kon, S. Argyria - Clinical Implications of Exposure to Silver-Nitrate and Silver-Oxide; J. Occup. Environ. Med. 1979, 21, 430-435. (Pubitemid 9196244)
113. Kim, Y.S.; Kim, J.S.; Cho, H.S.; Rha, D.S.; Kim, J.M.; Park, J.D.; Choi, B.S.; Lim, R.; Chang, H.K.; Chung, Y.H.; Kwon, I.H.; Jeong, J.; Han, B.S.; Yu, I.J. Twenty-Eight-Day Oral Toxicity, Genotoxicity, and Gender-Related Tissue Distribution of Silver Nanoparticles in Sprague-Dawley Rats; Inhal. Toxicol. 2008, 20, 575-583.
114. Mueller, N.C.; Nowack, B. Exposure Modeling of Engineered Nanoparticles in the Environment; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 4447-4453. (Pubitemid 351842389)
115. Felcher, E.M. The Consumer Product Safety Commission and Nanotechnology; Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars: Washington, DC, 2008; p 36.
116. PC Magazine Amara's Law Definition; available at http://www.pcmag.com/ encyclopedia-term/0,2542,t=Amaras+law&i=37701,00.asp (accessed May 2009)
117. Grassian, V.H.; O'Shaughnessy, P.T.; Adamcakova-Dodd, A.; Pettibone, J. M.; Thorne, P.S. Inhalation Exposure Study of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles with a Primary Particle Size of 2 to 5 nm; Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 397-402. (Pubitemid 46554438)
118. Burtscher, H.; Scherrer, L.; Siegmann, H.C.; Schmidtott, A.; Federer, B. Probing Aerosols by Photoelectric Charging; J. Appl. Phys. 1982, 53, 3787-3791.
119. Wen, J.; Wexler, A.S. Thermophoretic Sampler and Its Application in Ultrafine Particle Collection; Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 624-629.
120. Takenaka, S.; Karg, E.; Moller, W.; Roth, C.; Ziesenis, A. In A Morphologic Study on the Fate of Ultrafine Silver Particles: Distribution Pattern of Phagocytized Metallic Silver in Vitro and in Vivo; 7th International Symposium on Particle Toxicology: Maastricht, The Netherlands, 1999; pp 291-299.
121. Yin, Y.D.; Li, Z.Y.; Zhong, Z.Y.; Gates, B.; Xia, Y.N.; Venkateswaran, S. Synthesis and Characterization of Stable Aqueous Dispersions of Silver Nanoparticles through the Tollens Process; J. Mat. Chem. 2002, 12, 522-527.
122. Grassian, V.H.; Adamcakova-Dodd, A.; Pettibone, J.M.; O'Shaughnessy, P. T.; Thorne, P.S. Inflammatory Response of Mice to Manufactured Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: Comparison of Size Effects through Different Exposure Routes. Nanotoxicology 2007, 1, 211-226.