Blister rust and western forest biodiversity: Ecology, values and outlook for white pines

Forest Pathology

Volumn 40, Issue 3-4, 2010, Pages 186-225

  Tomback, D F ^a,b   Achuff, P ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^b Ecological Integrity Branch   (Canada)

^c Waterton Lakes National Park   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BEAR; BIODIVERSITY; BIRD; CLIMATE CHANGE; COMMERCIAL SPECIES; CONIFEROUS FOREST; CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT; DISEASE RESISTANCE; ECOSYSTEM SERVICE; FIRE MANAGEMENT; FOREST CANOPY; FOREST ECOSYSTEM; LAND USE CHANGE; POPULATION DECLINE; RUST DISEASE; SEED DISPERSAL; SPECIES DIVERSITY; SUCCESSION; TOLERANCE; TREELINE; WATERSHED; WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT;

CANADA; UNITED STATES;

AVES; COLEOPTERA; CRONARTIUM RIBICOLA; PINUS ALBICAULIS; PINUS MUGO; URSUS ARCTOS;

EID: 77955604696     PISSN: 14374781     EISSN: 14390329     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0329.2010.00655.x     Document Type: Review

References (273)

1. Abbott H G. White pine seed consumption by small mammals. J. Forestry 1961, 59:197-201.
2. Abbott H G, Quink T F. Ecology of eastern white pine seed caches made by small forest mammals. Ecology 1970, 51:271-278. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1933663, [Online]. Available:
3. Achuff P L. Fire in the Rocky Mountain National Parks. File report 1996, Waterton Park, AB, Parks Canada, Waterton Lakes National Park, p
4. Achuff P L, McNeil R L, Coleman M L, Wallis C, Wershler C. Ecological land classification of Waterton Lakes National Park, Alberta 2002, File report, Waterton Park, AB, Parks Canada, Waterton Lakes National Park
5. Achuff P L, Taylor W S, Knapik L J. Ecological land classification of Yoho National Park, British Columbia 1993, File report, Field, BC, Parks Canada, Yoho National Park, p
6. Agee J K. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests 1993, Washington, DC, Island Press, p
7. Ahlstrom G A. Inventory trends and values of sugar pine. Sugar pine: Status, values, and roles in ecosystems, Davis, CA, 1992 March 30-April 1 1996, 22-24. Kinloch B BMarosy MHuddleston M E. In, Ed. By, Publ. 3362, Davis, CA, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, pp
8. Mountain pine beetle control program, 1980-1986 1986, Alberta Forestry Lands and Wildlife, Rep. I/143, Edmonton, AB, p
9. Alexander B G, Ronco F, Fitzhugh E L, Ludwig J A. A classification of forest habitat types of the Lincoln National Forest, New Mexico 1984, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-104, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, p
10. National Register of Big Trees: Sugar pine 2009, http://www.americanforests.org/resources/bigtrees/register, American Forests, Washington, DC, [Online]. Available:
11. Andresen J W, Steinhoff R J. The taxonomy of Pinus flexilis and P. strobiformis. Phytologia 1971, 22:57-70.
12. Arno SF. Whitebark pine. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada 1980, Eyre FH. in, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Society of American Foresters, p
13. Arno S F. Community types and natural disturbance processes. Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 2001, 74-88. Tomback D FArno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
14. Arno S F, Allison-Bunnell S. Flames in Our Forest: Disaster or Renewal? 2002, Washington, DC, Island Press, p
15. Arno S F, Hammerly R P. Timberline: Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers 1984, Seattle, WA, The Mountaineers
16. Arno S F, Hoff R J. Pinus albicaulis Engelm. Whitebark pine 1990, 268-279. In, Silvics of North America, Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, pp
17. Arno S F, Petersen T D. Variation in estimates of fire intervals: a closer look at fire history on the Bitterroot National Forest 1983, Res. Pap. INT-301, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, p
18. Aubry C, Goheen D, Shoal R, Ohlson T, Lorenz T, Bower A, Mehmel C, Sniezko R. Whitebark Pine Restoration Strategy for the Pacific Northwest Region, 2009-2013 2008, http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/genetics/documents/publications/pub801b.pdf, Portland, OR, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, p. [Online]. Available:
19. Bailey D K. Phytogeography and taxonomy of Pinus subsection Balfourianae. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1970, 57:210-249.
20. Baker W L. Structure, disturbance, and change in the bristlecone pine forests of Colorado, U.S.A. Arctic Alpine Res. 1992, 24:17-26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1551316, [Online]. Available:
21. Barney CW. Limber pine. Forest Cover Types of the United States and Canada 1980, 98-99. Eyre FH. in, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Society of American Foresters, pp
22. Barrett S W. Fire regimes on andesite mountain terrain in northeastern Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. International Journal of Wildland Fire 1994, 4:65-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WF9940065, Online]. doi: 10.1071/WF9940065
23. Baud K S. Simulating Clark's nutcracker caching behavior: Germination and predation of seed caches 1993, Denver, CO, University of Colorado at Denver, Thesis
24. Baumeister D, Callaway R M. Facilitation by Pinus flexilis during succession: a hierarchy of mechanisms benefit other plant species. Ecology 2006, 87:1816-1830. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20069137, Online]. Available:
25. Conservation status report: Pinus albicaulis 2008, http://srmapps.gov.bc.ca/apps/eswp/, BCCDC (British Columbia Conservation Data Centre), Victoria, BC, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Online]. Available:
26. Beasley R S, Klemmedson J O. Ecological relationships of bristlecone pine. Am. Midl. Nat. 1980, 104:242-252.
27. Benedict W V. History of white pine blister rust control--a personal account 1981, Rep. FS-355, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, p
28. Benkman C W. The impact of tree squirrels (Tamiasciurus) on limber pine seed dispersal adaptations. Evolution 1995, 49:585-591. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410312, Online]. Available:
29. Benkman C W, Balda R P, Smith C C. Adaptations for seed dispersal and the compromises due to seed predation in limber pine. Ecology 1984, 65:632-642. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1941426, [Online]. Available:
30. Bentz B J, Kegley S, Gibson K, Thier R. A test of high-dose verbenone for stand level protection of lodgepole and whitebark pine from mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) attacks. J. Econ. Entomol. 2005, 98:1614-1621.
31. Billings W D, Thompson J H. Composition of a stand of old bristlecone pines in the White Mountains of California. Ecology 1957, 38:158-160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1932148, [Online]. Available:
32. Bingham R T. Blister rust resistant western white pine for the Inland Empire: The story of the first 25 years of the research and development program 1983, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-146, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, p
33. Blodgett J T, Sullivan K F. First report of white pine blister rust on Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine. Plant Dis. 2004, 88:311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2004.88.3.311, [Online]. doi: 10.1094/PDIS.2004.88.3.311A
34. Bockino N K. Interactions of white pine blister rust, host species, and mountain pine beetle in whitebark pine ecosystems in the Greater Yellowstone 2008, Laramie, WY, University of Wyoming, Thesis
35. Boyd R J. Western white pine. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada 1980, 94-95. Eyre F H. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Society of American Foresters, pp
36. A socio-economic analysis of mountain pine beetle management in British Columbia 1997, British Columbia Ministry of Forests., Victoria, BC: Forest Practices Branch, p
37. Brown J K, Arno S F, Barrett S W, Menakis J P. Comparing the prescribed natural fire program with presettlement fires in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of Wildland Fire 1994, 4:157-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WF9940157, [Online]. doi: 10.1071/WF9940157
38. Bruederle L P, Rogers D I, Krutovskii K V, Politov D V. Population genetics and evolutionary implications. Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration 2001, 137-153. Tomback D F, Arno S F, Keane R E, In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
39. Brunelle A, Rehfeldt G E, Bentz B, Munson A S. Holocene records of Dendroctonus bark beetles in high elevation pine forests of Idaho and Montana, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 255:836-846. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.10.008, [Online]. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2007.10.008
40. Brunstein F C, Yamaguchi D K. The oldest known Rocky Mountain bristlecone pines (Pinus aristata Engelm.). Arctic Alpine Res. 1992, 24:253-256. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1551666, [Online]. Available:
41. Bunn A G, Lawrence R L, Bellante G J, Waggoner L A, Graumlich L J. Spatial variation in distribution and growth patterns of old growth strip-bark pines. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 2003, 35:323-330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2003)035, [Online]. doi: 10.1657/1523-0430(2003)035[0323:SVIDAG]2.0.CO;2
42. Bunn A G, Waggoner L A, Graumlich L J. Topographic mediation of growth in high elevation foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana Grev. et Balf.) forests in the Sierra Nevada, USA. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2005, 14:103-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822X.2005.00141.x, [Online]. doi: 10.1111/j.1466-822X.2005.00141.x
43. Burns K S, Schoettle A W, Jacobi W R, Mahalovich M F. Options for the management of white pine blister rust in the Rocky Mountain Region 2008, http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/29450, Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-206, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, p. [Online]. Available:
44. Callaway R M. Competition and facilitation on elevation gradients in subalpine forest of the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Oikos 1998, 82:561-573. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3546376, [Online]. Available:
45. Campbell E M, Antos J A. Distribution and severity of white pine blister rust and mountain pine beetle on whitebark pine in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 2000, 30:1051-1059. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-30-7-1051, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/cjfr-30-7-1051
46. Campbell E M, Antos J A. Postfire succession in Pinus albicaulis-Abies lasiocarpa forest of southern British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 2003, 81:383-397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b03-040, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/b03-040
47. Carsey K S, Tomback D F. Growth form distribution and genetic relationships in tree clusters of Pinus flexilis, a bird-dispersed pine. Oecology 1994, 98:402-411. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4220715, [Online]. Available:
48. Cermak R W. Sugar pine in the history of the West Coast. Sugar Pine: Status, Values, and Roles in Ecosystems, Davis, CA, 1992 March 30-April 1 1996, 10-21. Kinloch B BMarosy MHuddleston M E. In, Ed. By, Publ. 3362, Davis, CA, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, pp
49. Chappell C B, Agee J K. Fire severity and tree seedling establishment in Abies magnifica forests, southern Cascades, Oregon. Ecol. Appl. 1996, 6:628-640. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2269397, [Online]. doi: 10.2307/2269397
50. Cheyney E G. Preliminary investigations on Ribes as a controlling factor in the spread of white pine blister rust. Science 1920, 52:342-345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.52.1345.342, [Online]. doi: 10.1126/science.52.1345.342-a
51. Ciesla W M, Furness M M. Idaho's haunted forests. American Forests 1975, 81:32-35.
52. Conklin D A, Fairweather M L, Ryerson D E, Geils B W, Vogler D R. White pines, blister rust and management in the Southwest 2009, http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/publications/documents/wp_mgmt_guide.pdf, R3-FH-09-01, Albuquerque, NM, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwest Region, Forestry and Forest Health, p. [Online]. Available:
53. Connor K F, Lanner R M. Effects of tree age on pollen, seed, and seedling characteristics in Great Basin bristlecone pine. Bot. Gaz. 1991, 152:107-113.
54. Cooper W S. The ecological life history of certain species of Ribes and its application to the control of white pine blister rust. Ecology 1922, 3:7-16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1929085, [Online]. Available:
55. Critchfield W B, Little E L. Geographic distribution of the pines of the world 1966, http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/data/atlas/little/, Misc. Publ. 991, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, p. [Online]. Available:
56. Currey D R. An ancient bristlecone pine stand in eastern Nevada. Ecology 1965, 46:564-566. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1934900, [Online]. Available:
57. Danzer S R, Baisan C H, Swetnam T W. The influence of fire and land-use history on stand dynamics in the Huachuca Mountains of southeastern Arizona. Effects of fire on Madrean Province Ecosystems, Tucson, AZ, 1996 March 11-15 1996, 265-270. Ffolliott P, DeBano L, Baker MGottfried GSolis GGasza;hEdminster CNearyDAllen LHamre R. In, Ed. By, Gen. Tech. Rep. RE-GTR-289, Fort Collins, CO, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, pp
58. Daubenmire R F. Plant Communities 1968, New York, Harper and Ross, p
59. Day R J. Whitebark pine in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta. Forestry Chronicle 1967, 43:278-284.
60. Dhir N, Allen L, Vujnovic K. Limber and whitebark pine management in Alberta. Whitebark and limber pine workshop, Calgary, AB, 2003 February 18-19 2003, 10-11. Rasheed S, In, Ed. By, Calgary, AB, Parks Canada, pp
61. Diaz-Avalos C, Peterson D L, Alvarado E, Ferguson S A, Besag J E. Space-time modeling of lightning-caused ignition in the Blue Mountains, Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 2001, 31:1579-1593. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-31-9-1579, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/cjfr-31-9-1579
62. Donnegan J A, Rebertus A J. Rates and mechanisms of subalpine forest succession along an environmental gradient. Ecology 1999, 80:1370-1384. http://www.jstor.org/stable/177081, [Online]. Available:
63. Eckert A J, Sawyer J O. Foxtail pine importance and conifer diversity in the Klamath Mountains and southern Sierra Nevada, California. Madroño 2002, 49:33-45.
64. Ellison A M, Bank M, Clinton B, Colburn E, Elliott K, Ford C, Foster D, Kloeppel B, Knoepp J, Lovett G, Mohan J, Orwig D, Rodenhouse N, Sobczak W, Stinson K, Stone J, Swan C, Thompson V, Von Holle B, Webster J. Loss of foundation species: Consequences for the structure and dynamics of forested ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2005, 3:479-486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003, [Online]. doi: 10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0479:LOFSCF]2.0.CO;2
65. Eyre FH. Forest Cover Types of the United States and Canada 1980, ed, Washington, DC, Society of American Foresters, p
66. Farjon A, Styles B T. Pinus (Pinaceae) 1997, New York, New York Botanical Garden, Organization for Flora Neotropica
67. Farnes P E. SNOTEL and snow course data: Describing the hydrology of whitebark pine ecosystems. Symposium on whitebark pine ecosystems: Ecology and management of a high-mountain resource, Bozeman, MT, 1989 March 29-31 1990, 302-304. Schmidt W CMcDonald K J. In, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
68. Feldman F, Tomback D F, Koehler J. Cost of mutualism: Competition, tree morphology, and pollen production in limber pine clusters. Ecology 1999, 80:324-329. http://www.jstor.org/stable/177000, [Online]. Available:
69. Felicetti L A, Schwartz C C, Rye R O, Haroldson M A, Gunther K A, Phillips D L, Robbins C T. Use of sulfur and nitrogen stable isotopes to determine the importance of whitebark pine nuts to Yellowstone grizzly bears. Can. J. Zool. 2003, 81:763-770. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z03-054, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/z03-054
70. Ferguson C W. A 7104-year annual tree-ring chronology for bristlecone pine, Pinus aristata, from the White Mountains, California. Tree-ring Bulletin 1969, 29:3-17.
71. Fins L, Byler J W, Ferguson D, Harvey A E, Mahalovich M F, McDonald G I, Miller D, Schwandt J W, Zack A. Return of the giants: Restoring western white pine to the Inland Northwest. J. Forestry 2002, 100:20-26.
72. Flora of North America North of Mexico 1993, http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/FNA/, Flora of North America Editorial Committee, New York, Oxford University Press, Online]. Available:
73. Frank K L, Geils B W, Kalkstein L S, Thistle H W. Synoptic climatology of the long distance dispersal of white pine blister rust. II. Combination of surface and upper-level conditions. Int. J. Biometeorol. 2008, 52:653-666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-008-0158-3, [Online]. doi: 10.1007/s00484-008-0158-3
74. Franklin J R, Dyrness C T. Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington 1973, http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/26203, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8, Portland, OR, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, p. [Online]. Available:
75. Fulé P Z, Covington W W. Changing fire regimes in Mexican pine forests: Ecological and management implications. J. Forestry 1996, 94:33-38.
76. Geils B W. Establishment of white pine blister rust in New Mexico. HortTechnology 2000, 10:528-529.
77. Geils B W, Hummer K E, Hunt RS. White pines, Ribes, and blister rust: a review and synthesis. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:147-185.
78. Gernandt D S, López G G, García O S, Liston A. Phylogeny and classification of Pinus. Taxon 2005, 54:29-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25065300, [Online]. Available:
79. Gibson K E. Mountain pine beetle conditions in whitebark pine stands in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 2006 2006, Rep. 06-03, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, Forest Health Protection, Missoula Field Office, p
80. Gibson K E, Skov K, Kegley S, Jorgensen C, Smith S, Witcosky J. Mountain pine beetle impacts in high-elevation five-needle pines: Current trends and challenges 2008, http://www.fs.fed.us/r1-r4/spf/fhp/publications/bystate/R1-08020_MPBHigh Elevation5Needle_gibson_10232008.pdf, Rep. R1-08-020, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, Forest Health Protection, p. [Online]. Available:
81. Gilpin ME, Soulé ME. Minimum viable populations: Processes of species extinction. Conservation Biology: The science of scarcity and diversity 1986, 19-34. Soulé ME, in, Ed. By, Sunderland, MA, Sinauer Associates, Inc., pp
82. Graham R T. Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don western white pine. Silvics of North America, Conifers 1990, 385-395. In, Agric. Handb. 654, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, pp
83. Monitoring whitebark pine in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: 2007 Annual Report. 2008, 92-125.. Greater Yellowstone Whitebark Pine Monitoring Working Group, Yellowstone grizzly bear investigations. Bozeman, MT, U.S. Geological Survey, pp
84. Grissino-Mayer H D, Baisan C H, Swetnam T W. Fire history in the Pinaleno Mountains of southeastern Arizona: Effects of human-related disturbances. Biodiversity and management of the Madrean Archipelago, Tucson, AZ, 1994 September 19-23 1995, 399-407. DeBano L F, Ffolliott P F, Ortega-Rubio AGottfried G JHamre R HEdminster C B. In, Ed. By, tech. coords. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-264, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, pp
85. Habeck J R. A gradient analysis of a timberline zone at Logan Pass, Glacier Park, Montana. Northwest Science 1969, 43:65-73.
86. Hagle S K, McDonald G I, Norby E A. White pine blister rust in northern Idaho and western Montana: Alternatives for integrated management 1989, http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr261.pdf, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-261, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, p. [Online]. Available:
87. Hagle S K, Schwandt J W, Johnson T L, Kegley S J, Randall C S, Taylor J T, Lockman I B, Sturdevant N J, Marsden M A. Results. Succession functions of forest pathogens and insects in northern Idaho and western Montana 2000, Rep. 00-11, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, Forest Health Protection
88. Halvorson C H. Influence of vertebrates on conifer seed production. Conifer tree seed in the Inland Mountain West Symposium 1986, 201-222. Shearer R C. In, Ed. By, comp. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-203, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
89. Hamann A, Aitken S N, Yanchuk A D. Cataloguing in situ protection of genetic resources for major commercial forest trees in British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 2004, 197:295-305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.020, [Online]. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.020
90. Hamann A, Wang T. Potential effects of climate change on ecosystem and tree species distribution in British Columbia. Ecology 2006, 87:2773-2786. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87, [Online]. doi: 10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[2773:PEOCCO]2.0.CO;2
91. Harvey A E, Byler J W, McDonald G I, Neuenschwander L F, Tonn J R. Death of an ecosystem: Perspectives on western white pine ecosystems of North America at the end of the twentieth century 2008, http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/29617, Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-208, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, p. [Online]. Available:
92. Hawksworth F G. White pine blister rust in southern New Mexico. Plant Dis. 1990, 74:938. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PD-74-0938, [Online]. doi: 10.1094/PD-74-0938A
93. Hawksworth F G, Bailey D K. Bristlecone pine. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada 1980, 89-90. Eyre F H, In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Society of American Foresters, pp
94. Heyerdahl E K, Morgan P, Riser J P. Multi-season climate synchronized historical fires in dry forests (1650-1900), Northern Rockies, USA. Ecology 2008, 89:705-716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/06-2047.1, [Online]. doi: 10.1890/06-2047.1
95. Hoff R J, Bingham R T, McDonald G I. Relative blister rust resistance of white pines. Eur. J. of Forest Pathol. 1980, 10:307-316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0329.1980.tb00042.x, [Online]. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0329.1980.tb00042.x
96. Hoff R J, Ferguson D E, McDonald G I, Keane R E. Strategies for managing whitebark pine in the presence of white pine blister rust. Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 2001, 346-366. Tomback D F, Arno S F, Keane R E, In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
97. Hoff R J, Hagle S K, Krebill R G. Genetic consequences and research challenges of blister rust in whitebark pine forests. International workshop on subalpine stone pines and their environment: the status of our knowledge, St. Moritz, Switzerland, 1992 September 5-11 1994, 118-126. Schmidt W C, Holtmeir F-K, In, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-309, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
98. Hooper D U, Chapin F, Ewel J, Hector A, Inchausti P, Lavorel S, Lawton J, Lodge D, Loreau M, Naeem S, Schmid B, Setälä H, Symstad A, Vandermeer J, Wardle D. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol. Monogr. 2005, 75:3-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4539083, [Online]. Available:
99. Hunt R S. History of western white pine and blister rust in British Columbia. Forestry Chronicle 2009, 85:516-520.
100. Hunt R S, Geils B W, Hummer K E. White pines, Ribes, and bluster rust: Integration and action. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:402-417.
101. Hutchins H E, Lanner R M. The central role of Clark's nutcracker in the dispersal and establishment of whitebark pine. Oecologia 1982, 55:192-201. http://www.springerlink.com/content/v5h7030g06t51851/fulltext.pdf, [Online]. Available:
102. Summary for policy makers. Climate Change 2007: The physical science basis 2007, http://www.ipcc.ch/, Solomon SQin DManning MChen ZMarquis MAveryt K BTignor MMiller H L. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), In, Ed. By, New York, Cambridge University Press, p. [Online]. Available:
103. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2007, http://www.redlist.org, IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Online]. Available:
104. Jain T B, Graham R T, Morgan P. Western white pine development in relation to biophysical characteristics across different spatial scales in the Coeur d'Alene River basin in northern Idaho, U.S.A. Can. J. For. Res. 2002, 32:1109-1125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x02-032, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/x02-032
105. Jain T B, Graham R T, Morgan P. Western white pine growth relative to forest openings. Can. J. For. Res. 2004, 34:2187-2198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x04-094, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/x04-094
106. Johnson D W, Jacobi W R. First report of white pine blister rust in Colorado. Plant Dis. 2000, 84:595. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2000.84.5.595, [Online]. doi: 10.1094/PDIS.2000.84.5.595D
107. Keane R E. The importance of wilderness to whitebark pine research and management. Wilderness science in a time of change conference: Wilderness as a place for scientific inquiry, Missoula, MT, 1999 May 23-27 2000, 84-92. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/21973, McCool S FCole D NBorrie W TO'Laughlin J. In, Ed. By, comps. Proceedings RMRS-P-15, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, pp, Online]. Available:
108. Keane R E. Successional dynamics: Modelling an anthropogenic threat. Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 2001a, 159-192. Tomback D FArno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
109. Keane R E, Arno S F. Rapid decline of whitebark pine in western Montana: evidence from 20-year remeasurments. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 1993, 8:44-47.
110. Keane R E, Arno S F. Restoration concepts and techniques. Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 2001, 367-400. Tomback D F, Arno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
111. Keane R E, Arno S F, Brown J K, Tomback D F. Modelling stand dynamics in whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests. Ecol. Modell. 1990, 51:73-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3800(90)90059, [Online]. doi: 10.1016/0304-3800(90)90059-P
112. Keane R E, Holsinger L M, Parsons R A, Gray K. Climate change effects on historical range and variability of two large landscapes in western Montana, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 254:375-389. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.08.013, [Online]. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2007.08.013
113. Keane R E, Morgan P, Menakis J P. Landscape assessment of the decline of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, Montana, USA. Northwest Sci. 1994, 68:213-229.
114. Keane R E, Ryan K C, Veblen T T, Allen C D, Logan J A, Hawkes B. Cascading effects of fire exclusion in Rocky Mountain ecosystems. Rocky Mountain futures: an ecological perspective 2002, 133-152. Baron J S, In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
115. Kearns H S J, Jacobi W R. The distribution and incidence of white pine blister rust in central and southwestern Wyoming and northern Colorado. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37:462-472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/X06-231, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/X06-231
116. Kegley S, Gibson K. Protecting whitebark pine from mountain pine beetle attack using verbenone 2004, http://www.fs.fed.us/r1-r4/spf/fhp/publications/bystate/R1Pub04-8_white_ pine.pdf, Rep. 04-08, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, Forest Health Protection, p. [Online]. Available:
117. Kegley S, Schwandt J, Gibson K. Forest health assessment of whitebark pine in selected stands in the Selkirk Mountain of northern Idaho 2004, http://www.fs.fed.us/r1-r4/spf/fhp/publications/bystate/R1Pub045_Selkirk Mountains_kegley_22004.pdf, Rep. 04-5, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, p. [Online]. Available:
118. Kendall K C. Use of pine nuts by grizzly and black bears in the Yellowstone Area. Bears: Their Biology and Management 1983, 5:166-173. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3872534, [Online]. Available:
119. Kendall K C, Keane R E. Whitebark pine decline: Infection, mortality, and population trends. Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 2001, 221-242. Tomback D F, Arno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
120. Kendall K C, Ayers D, Schirokauer D. Limber pine status from Alberta to Wyoming. Nutcracker Notes 1996a, 7:23.
121. Kendall K C, Tyers D, Schirokauer D. Preliminary status of whitebark pine in Gallatin National Forest, Montana. Nutcracker Notes 1996b, 7:19.
122. Kendall K C, Schirokauer D, Shanahan E, Watt R, Reinhart D, Renkin R, Caine S, Green G. Whitebark pine health in northern Rockies national park ecosystems: a preliminary report. Nutcracker Notes 1996c, 7:16.
123. King J N, David A, Noshad D, Smith J. A review of genetic approaches to the management of blister rust in white pines. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:292-313.
124. Kinloch B B. Sugar pine: an American wood 1984, http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/usda/amwood/257sugpi.pdf, FS-257, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Information Services, p. [Online]. Available:
125. Kinloch B B, Dulitz D J. White pine blister rust at Mountain Home Demonstration State Forest: a case study of the epidemic and prospects for genetic control 1990, http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/30626, Res. Pap. PSW-204, Berkeley, CA, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, p. [Online]. Available:
126. Kinloch B B, Scheuner W H. Pinus lambertiana Dougl. Sugar pine. Silvics of North America, Conifers 1990, 370-379. Agric. Handb. 654, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, pp
127. Kipfmueller K F, Baker W L. A fire history of a subalpine forest in south-eastern Wyoming, USA. J. Biogeogr. 2000, 27:71-85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2655988, [Online]. Available:
128. Knight D. Mountains and Plains: The Ecology of Wyoming Landscapes 1994, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, p
129. Kral R. Pinus. Flora of North America north of Mexico 1993, 373-398., 6, In, Ed. by, Flora of North America Editorial Committee, New York, Oxford University Press, pp, Online]. Available: http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=125519
130. LaMarche V C, Mooney H A. Recent climatic change and development of the bristlecone pine (P. longaeva Bailey) krummholz zone, Mt. Washington, Nevada. Arctic and Alpine Research 1972, 4:61-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1550214, [Online]. Available:
131. Lanner R M. Seed dispersal in Pinus. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus 1998, 281-295. Richardson D M. In, Ed. By, Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, pp
132. Lanner R M, Connor K F. Does bristlecone pine senesce? Exp. Gerontol. 2001, 36:675-685. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0531-5565(00)00234-5, [Online]. doi: 10.1016/S0531-5565(00)00234-5
133. Lanner R M, Gilbert B K. Nutritive value of whitebark pine seeds, and the question of their variable dormancy. International workshop on subalpine stone pines and their environment: the status of our knowledge, St. Moritz, Switzerland, 1992 September 5-11 1994, 206-211. Schmidt W C, Holtmeir F-K. In, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-309, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
134. Lanner R M, Vander Wall S B. Dispersal of limber pine seed by Clark's nutcracker. J. Forestry 1980, 76:637-639.
135. Liston A, Robinson W A, Piñero D, Alvarez-Buylla E R. Phylogenetics of Pinus (Pinaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer region sequences. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1999, 11:95-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/mpev.1998.0550, [Online]. doi: 10.1006/mpev.1998.0550
136. Little E L, Critchfield W B. Subdivisions of the genus Pinus (pines) 1969, Misc. Publ. 1144, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
137. Lloyd A H, Graumlich L J. Holocene dynamics of treeline forests in the Sierra Nevada. Ecology 1997, 78:1199-1210. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265869, [Online]. doi:
138. Lockman I B, DeNitto G A. Whitebark-Limber Pine Information System (Version 1.0) 2006, http://www.fs.fed.us/r1r4/spf/fhp/prog/programs2, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 1. [Online]. Available:
139. Loehle C. Forest response to climate change: Do simulations predict unrealistic dieback? J. Forestry 1996, 94:13-15.
140. Logan J A, Powell J A. Ghost forests, global warming, and the mountain
141. Logan J A, Régnière J, Powell J A. Assessing the impacts of global warming on forest pest dynamics. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2003, 1:130-137.
142. Losensky B J. Historical uses of whitebark pine. Symposium on whitebark pine ecosystems: Ecology and management of a high-mountain resource, Bozeman, MT, 1989 March 29-31 1990, 191-197. Schmidt W CMcDonald K J. In, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
143. Lowery D. Western white pine: an American wood 1984, http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/usda/amwood/258wwhpi.pdf, FS-258, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, p. [Online]. Available:
144. Lundquist J E, Geils B W, Johnson D W. White pine blister rust on limber pine in South Dakota. Plant Dis. 1992, 76:538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PD-76-0538, [Online]. doi: 10.1094/PD-76-0538A
145. Mahalovich M F, Burr K E, Foushee D L. Whitebark pine germination, rust resistance, and cold hardiness among seed sources in the Inland Northwest: planting strategies for restoration. National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-2005: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 2006, 91-101. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p043/rmrs_p043_091_101.pdf, Riley L E, Dumroese R K, Landis T D. In, Ed. By, tech. coords. Proceedings RMRS-P-43, Fort Collins, CO, pp, Online]. Available:
146. Mahalovich M F, Dickerson G A. Whitebark pine genetic restoration program for the Intermountain West (United States). Breeding and genetic resources of five-needle pines: Growth, adaptability and pest resistance, IUFRO Working Party 2.02.15, Medford, OR, 2001 July 23-27 2004, 181-187. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p032.html, Sniezko R A, Samman SSchlarbaum S EKriebel H B. In, Ed. By, Proceedings RMRS-P-32, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, pp, Online]. Available:
147. Maloney P E, Smith T F, Jensen C E, Innes J, Rizzo D M, North M P. Initial tree mortality and insect and pathogen response to fire and thinning restoration treatments in an old-growth mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada. California Canadian Journal of Forest Research 2008, 38:3011-3020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/X08-141, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/X08-141
148. Maloy O C. White pine blister rust control in North America: a case history. Annual Review of Phytopathology 1997, 35:87-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.35.1.87, [Online]. doi: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.35.1.87
149. Mastrogiuseppe R J, Mastrogiuseppe J D. A study of Pinus balfouriana Grev. & Balf. (Pinaceae). Syst. Bot. 1980, 5:86-104. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2418738, [Online]. Available:
150. Mattson D J, Blanchard B M, Knight R R. Yellowstone grizzly bear mortality, human habituation, and whitebark pine seed crops. J. Wildl. Manage. 1992, 56:432-442. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3808855, [Online]. Available:
151. Mattson D J, Kendall K C, Reinhart D P. Whitebark pine, grizzly bears, and red squirrels. Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration 2001, 121-136. Tomback D F, Arno S F, Keane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
152. McCool S F, Freimund W A. Threatened landscapes and fragile experiences: Conflict in whitebark pine restoration. Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration 2001, 263-284. Tomback D F, Arno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
153. McCune B. Ecological diversity in North American pines. Am. J. Bot. 1988, 75:353-368. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443983, [Online]. Available:
154. McCutchen H E. Limber pine and bears. Great Basin Naturalist 1996, 56:90-92.
155. McDonald G I, Hoff R J. Blister rust: an introduced plague. Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration 2001, 193-220. Tomback D F, Arno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
156. McKenney D W, Pedlar J H, Lawrence K, Campbell K, Hutchinson M F. Potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of North American trees. Bioscience 2007, 57:939-948. http://dx.doi.org/10.1641/B571106, [Online]. doi: 10.1641/B571106
157. McKinney S T, Fiedler C E, Tomback D F. Invasive pathogen threatens bird--pine mutualism: Implications for sustaining a high-elevation ecosystem. Ecol. Appl. 2009, 19:597-607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/08-0151.1, [Online]. doi: 10.1890/08-0151.1
158. McKinney S T, Tomback D F. The influence of white pine blister rust on seed dispersal in whitebark pine. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37:1044-1057. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/X06-305, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/X06-305
159. Mielke J L. White pine blister rust in western North America 1943, Bull. 52, New Haven, CT, Yale University, School of Forestry, p
160. Miles P D. Forest inventory mapmaker web-application version 4.0 2009, http://www.ncrs2.fs.fed.us/480/fiadb/index.htm, St. Paul, MN, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station, Online]. Available:
161. Mills L S, Soulé M E, Doak D F. The keystone-species concept in ecology and conservation. Bioscience 1993, 43:219-224. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1312122, [Online]. Available:
162. Morgan P, Bunting S C. Fire effects in whitebark pine forests. Symposium on Whitebark Pine Ecosystems: Ecology and Management of a High-Mountain Resource, Bozeman, MT, 1989 March 29-31 1990, 166-170. Schmidt W C, McDonald K J. In, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
163. Muir J. The Mountains of California 1894, Berkeley, CA, Ten Speed Press, [for 1977 reprint]
164. Murphy P J. History of forest and prairie fire control policy in Alberta. Rep. T/77 1985, Edmonton, AB, Alberta Energy and Natural Resources, p
165. Murray M P, Bunting S C, Morgan P. Fire history of an isolated subalpine mountain range of the Intermountain Region, United States. J. Biogeogr. 1998, 25:1071-1080. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2846200, [Online]. Available:
166. Murray M P, Bunting S C, Morgan P. Landscape trends (1753-1993) of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests in the West Big Hole Range of Idaho/Montana, U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research 2000, 32:412-418. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1552390, [Online]. Available:
167. Mutch L S, Parsons D J. Mixed conifer forest mortality and establishment before and after prescribed fire in Sequoia National Park, California. Forest Science 1998, 44:341-355.
168. A petition to list the whitebark pine, Pinus albicaulis, as an endangered species under the Endangered Species Act. 2008, http://docs.nrdc.org/legislation/files/leg_08120801a.pdf, Natural Resources Defense Council, Online]. Available:
169. Pinus albicaulis. NatureServe Explorer. 2009, http://www.natureserve.org/explorer, NatureServe, Version 7.1) [Online]. Available:
170. Nelson E, Mendoza G, Regetz J, Polasky S, Tallis H, Cameron DR, Chan KMA, Daily GC, Goldstein J, Kareiva PM, Lonsdorf E, Naidoo R, Ricketts TH, Shaw MR. Modeling multiple ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, commodity production, and tradeoffs at landscape scales. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2009, 7:4-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/080023, [Online]. doi: 10.1890/080023
171. Neuenschwander L F, Byler J W, Harvey A E, McDonald G I, Ortiz D S, Osborne H L, Snyder G C, Zack A. White pine in the American West: a vanishing species-Can we save it? 1999, http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr35.pdf, Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-35, Moscow, ID, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, p. [Online]. Available:
172. Ogilvie R T. Distribution and ecology of whitebark pine in western Canada. Symposium on Whitebark Pine Ecosystems: Ecology and Management of a High-mountain Resource, Bozeman, MT, 1989 March 29-31 1990, 54-60. Schmidt W CMcDonald K J. In, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270, Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
173. Oline D K, Mitton J B, Grant M C. Population and subspecific genetic differentiation in the foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana). Evolution 2000, 54:1813-1819. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2640679, [Online]. Available:
174. Peet R K. Latitudinal variation in southern Rocky Mountain forests. J. Biogeogr. 1978, 5:275-289. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3038041, [Online]. doi:
175. Perkins D L, Swetnam T W. A dendrochronology assessment of whitebark pine in the Sawtooth-Salmon River region, Idaho. Can. J. For. Res. 1996, 26:2123-2133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x26-241, [Online]. doi: 10.1139/x26-241
176. Perry J P. The Pines of Mexico and Central America 1991, Portland, OR, Timberland Press, p
177. Power M E, Tilman D, Estes J A, Menge B A, Bond W J, Mills L S, Daily G, Castilla J C, Lubchenco J, Paine R T. Challenges in the quest for keystones. Bioscience 1996, 46:609-620. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1312990, [Online]. doi:
178. Price R A, Liston A, Strauss S H. Phylogeny and systematics of Pinus. Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus 1998, 49-68. Richardson D M, In, Ed. By, Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, pp
179. Primack R B. Essentials of conservation biology 1998, Suderland, MA, Sinauer Associates
180. Pyne S J. Year of The Fires: The Story of The Great Fires of 1910 2001, New York, Penguin Books
181. Quick C R. Resurgence of a gooseberry population after fire in mature timber. J. Forestry 1962b, 60:100-103.
182. Raffa K F, Aukema B H, Bentz B J, Carroll A L, Hicke J A, Turner M G, Romme W H. Cross-scale drivers of natural disturbances prone to anthropogenic amplification: the dynamics of bark beetle eruptions. Bioscience 2008, 58:501-517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1641/B580607, [Online]. doi: 10.1641/B580607
183. Ranne B M, Baker W L, Andrews T, Ryan M G. Natural variability of vegetation, soils, and physiography in the bristlecone pine forests of the Rocky Mountains. Great Basin Naturalist 1997, 57:21-37.
184. Rebertus A J, Burns B R, Veblen T T. Stand dynamics of Pinus flexilis-dominated subalpine forest in the Colorado Front Range. J. Veg. Sci. 1991, 2:445-458. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3236026, [Online]. Available:
185. Resler, L. M.; Tomback, D. F., 2008: Blister rust prevalence in krummholz whitebark pine: Implications for treeline dynamics, Northern Rocky Mountains, Montana, U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research 40, 161-170. [Online]. doi: 10.1657/1523-0430(06-116)[RESLER]2.0.CO;2
186. Rhode D, Madsen D B. Pine nut use in the Early Holocene and beyond: the Danger Cave archaeobotanical record. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1998, 25:1199-1210.
187. Richardson B A, Brunsfeld S J, Klopfenstein N B. DNA from bird-dispersed seed and wind-disseminated pollen provides insights into postglacial colonization and population genetic structure of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). Mol. Ecol. 2002a, 11:215-227., [Online]. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01435.x
188. Richardson B A, Klopfenstein N B, Brunsfeld S J. Assessing Clark's nutcracker seed-caching flights using maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA of whitebark pine. Can. J. For. Res. 2002b, 32:1103-1107. Online]. doi: 10.1139/x02-037
189. Richardson B A, Ekramoddoulah A K M, Liu J-J, Kim M-S. Current and future molecular approaches to investigate the white pine to minimize impacts of damaging. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:314-331.
190. Ricketts T D, Dinerstein E, Olson D M. Terrestrial ecoregions of North America: a conservation assessment 1999, Washington, DC, Island Press
191. Rockwell F I. The white pines of Montana and Idaho-Their distribution, quality, and uses. Forestry Quarterly 1911, 9:219-231.
192. Rogers D L, Millar C I, Westfall R D. Fine-scale genetic structure of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis): associations with watershed and growth form. Evolution 1999, 53:74-90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2640921, [Online]. Available:
193. Romme W H. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. Monogr. 1982, 52:199-221. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1942611, [Online]. Available:
194. Rundel P W, Parsons D J, Gordon D T, Barbour M G, Major J. Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges. Terrestrial Vegetation of California 1977, 559-599. In, Ed. By, New York, John Wiley and Sons, pp
195. Sakulich J, Taylor A H. Fire regimes and forest structure in a sky island mixed conifer forest, Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Texas, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2007, 241:62-73. [Online]. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2006.12.029
196. Samano S, Tomback D F. Cone opening phenology, seed dispersal, and seed predation in southwestern white pine (Pinus strobiformis) in southern Colorado. Écoscience 2003, 10:319-326.
197. Assessment and response to bark beetle outbreaks in the Rocky Mountain area: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 2000, http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/4570, Samman SLogan J. tech. eds, Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-62, Ogden, UT, p. [Online]. Available:
198. Samman S, Schwandt J W, Wilson J L. Managing for healthy white pine ecosystems in the United States to reduce the impacts of white pine blister rust 2003, http://www.forestpests.org/acrobat/WPBRReport.pdf, Rep. R1-03-118, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, p. [Online]. Available:
199. Sawyer J O, Thornburgh D A. Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Klamath Mountains. Terrestrial Vegetation of California 1977, 699-732. Barbour M G, Major J. In, Ed. By, New York, John Wiley and Sons, pp
200. Schauer A J, Schoettle A W, Boyce R L. Partial cambial mortality in high-elevation Pinus aristata (Pinaceae). Am. J. Bot. 2001, 88:646-652. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657064, [Online]. doi:
201. Schoettle A W. Ecological roles of five-needle pines in Colorado: potential consequences of their loss. Breeding and genetic resources of five-needle pines: Growth, adaptability and pest resistance, IUFRO Working Party 2.02.15, Medford, OR, 2001 July 23-27 2004a, 124-135. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p032.html, Sniezko R ASamman SSchlarbaum S EKriebel H B. In, Ed. By, Proceedings RMRS-P-32, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, pp, Online]. Available:
202. Schoettle A W, Rochelle S G. Morphological variation of Pinus flexilis (Pinaceae), a bird-dispersed pine, across a range of elevations. Am. J. Bot. 2000, 87:1797-1806. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2656832, [Online]. Available:
203. Schoettle A W, Sniezko R A. Proactive intervention to sustain high-elevation pine ecosystems threatened by white pine blister rust. Journal of Forest Research 2007, 12:327-336. [Online]. doi: 10.1007/s10310-007-0024-x
204. Schrag A M, Bunn A G, Graumlich L J. Influence of bioclimatic variables on treeline conifer distribution in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: implications for species of conservation concern. J. Biogeogr. 2008, 35:698-710. [Online]. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01815.x
205. Schuster W S F, Mitton J B, Yamaguchi D K, Woodhouse C A. A comparison of limber pine (Pinus flexilis) ages at lower and upper treeline sites east of the Continental Divide in Colorado. Am. Midl. Nat. 1995, 133:101-111. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2426351, [Online]. Available:
206. Schwandt J W. Whitebark pine in peril: a case for restoration 2006, http://www.fs.fed.us/r1r4/spf/fhp/whitebark_pine/WBPCover_4.htm, Rep. R1-06-28, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 1, p. [Online]. Available:
207. Schwandt J W, Kegley S. Mountain pine beetle, blister rust, and their interaction on whitebark pine at Trout Lake and Fisher Peak in northern Idaho from 2001-2003 2004, R-1 FHP Rep. 04-9, Missoula, MT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, p
208. Schwandt J W, Lockman I B, Kliejunas J T, Mulir J A. Current health issues and management strategies for white pines in the western United States and Canada. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:226-250.
209. Seklecki M T, Grissino-Mayer H D, Swetnam T W. Fire history and the possible role of Apache-set fires in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. Effects of fire on the Madrean Province Ecosystems 1996, 238-246. Ffolliott P F, DeBano L F, Baker M BGottfried G JSolis GGarza C B. In, Ed. By, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-289, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, pp
210. Shiels A B, Sanford R L. Soil nutrient differences between two krummholz-form tree species and adjacent alpine tundra. Geoderma 2001, 102:205-217. [Online]. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7061(01)00015-5
211. Siepielski A M, Benkman C W. Selection by a predispersal seed predator constrains the evolution of avian seed dispersal in pines. Funct. Ecol. 2007, 21:611-618. [Online]. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01261.x
212. Siepielski A M, Benkman C W. Seed predation and selection exerted by a seed predator influence subalpine tree densities. Ecology 2008, 89:2960-2966., [Online]. doi: 10.1890/08-0072.1
213. Six D L, Adams J. White pine blister rust severity and selection of individual whitebark pine by the mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae). Journal of Entomological Science 2007, 42:345-352.
214. Smith C C. The coevolution of pine squirrels (Tamiasciurus) and conifers. Ecol. Monogr. 1970, 40:349-371. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1942287, [Online]. Available:
215. Smith C C, Balda R P. Competition among insects, birds and mammals for conifer seeds. Am. Zool. 1979, 19:1065-1083. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3882451, [Online]. doi:
216. Smith J P, Hoffman J T. Status of white pine blister rust in the Intermountain West. West. N. Am. Nat. 2000, 60:165-179.
217. Smith C M, Wilson B, Rasheed S, Walker R, Carolin T, Sheppard B. Whitebark pine and white pine blister rust in the Rocky Mountains of Canada and northern Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 2008, 38:982-995. [Online]. doi: 10.1139/X07-182
218. Soulé M E, Estes J A, Berger J, Martinez del Rio C. Ecological effectiveness: Conservation goals for interactive species. Conserv. Biol. 2003, 17:1238-1250. [Online]. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01599.x
219. Steele R. Pinus flexilis James Limber pine. Silvics of North America, Conifers 1990, 348-354. Agric. Handb. 654, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, p
220. Steinhoff R J, Andresen J W. Geographic variation in Pinus flexilis and Pinus strobiformis and its bearing on their taxonomic status. Silvae Genetica 1971, 20:159-167.
221. Stephens S L, Finney M A. Prescribed fire mortality of Sierra Nevada mixed conifer tree species: effects of crown damage and forest floor combustion. For. Ecol. Manage. 2002, 162:261-271., [Online]. doi: 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00521-7
222. Swetnam T W, Betancourt J L. Fire--southern oscillation relations in the southwestern United States. Science 1990, 249:1017-1020. [Online]. doi: 10.1126/science.249.4972.1017
223. Tang J, Feng X, Funkhouser G. The γ13 C of tree rings in full-bark and strip bark bristlecone pine trees in the White Mountains of California. Glob. Chang. Biol. 1999, 5:33-40. [Online]. doi: 10.1046/j.13652486.1998.00204.x
224. Taylor A H. Identifying forest reference conditions on early cut-over lands, Lake Tahoe Basin, USA. Ecol. Appl. 2004, 14:1903-1920. [Online]. doi: 10.1890/02-5257
225. Taylor S W, Carroll A L. Disturbance, forest age, and mountain pine beetle outbreak dynamics in BC: a historical perspective. Mountain pine beetle symposium: Challenges and solutions, Kelowna, BC, 2003 October 30-31 2004, 41-56. http://warehouse.pfc.forestry.ca/pfc/25159.pdf, Shore T L, Brooks J EStone J E. In, Ed. By, Info. Rep. BC-X-399, Victoria, BC, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, pp, [Online]. Available:
226. Taylor A H, Solem M N. Fire regimes and stand dynamics in an upper montane forest landscape of the southern Cascades, Caribou Wilderness, California. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 2001, 128:350-361. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3088667, [Online]. Available:
227. Taylor S W, Carroll A L, Alfaro R I, Safranyik L. Forest, climate and mountain pine beetle outbreak dynamics in western Canada. The mountain pine beetle: a synthesis of biology, management, and impacts on lodgepole pine 2006, 67-94. Safranyik L, Wilson B, . In, Ed. By, Victoria, BC, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, pp
228. Tevis L. Effect of vertebrate animals on seed crop of sugar pine. J. of Wildl. Manage. 1953, 17:128-131. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3796707, [Online]. Available:
229. Thayer T C, Vander Wall S B. Interactions between Steller's jays and yellow pine chipmunks over scatter-horded sugar pine seeds. J. Anim. Ecol. 2005, 74:365-374. [Online]. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.00932.x
230. Thilenius J F. An isolated occurrence of limber pine (Pinus flexilis James) in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Am. Midl. Nat. 1970, 84:411-417.
231. Tomback D F. Foraging strategies of Clark's nutcracker. Living Bird 1978, 16:123-161.
232. Tomback D F. Dispersal of whitebark pine seeds by Clark's nutcracker: a mutualism hypothesis. J. Anim. Ecol. 1982, 51:451-467.
233. Tomback D F. Post-fire regeneration of krummholz whitebark pine: a consequence of nutcracker seed caching. Madroño 1986, 33:100-110.
234. Tomback D F. Clark's Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana). The Birds of North America, No. 331 1998, Poole AGill F. In, Ed. By, Philadelphia, PA, The Birds of North America, Inc, p
235. Tomback D F. Clark's nutcracker: agent of regeneration. Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 2001, 89-104. Tomback D FArno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
236. Tomback D F. The rapid decline of whitebark pine communities: Ecological and biodiversity implications. Ecological and earth sciences in mountain areas 2003, 31-42. Taylor LMartin KHik DRyall A. In, Ed. By, Banff, AB, The Banff Centre, pp
237. Tomback D F. The impact of seed dispersal by Clark's nutcracker on whitebark pine: Multi-scale perspective on a high mountain mutualism. Mountain ecosystems: Studies in treeline ecology 2005, 181-201. Broll GKeplin B. In, Ed. By, Berlin, Springer, pp
238. Tomback D F, Kendall K C. Biodiversity losses: the downward spiral. Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration 2001, 243-262. Tomback D F, Arno S FKeane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
239. Tomback DF, Linhart YB. The evolution of bird-dispersed pines. Evol. Ecol. 1990, 4:185-219. http://www.springerlink.com/content/u0n7625178483t47/fulltext.pdf, [Online]. Available:
240. Tomback D F, Resler L M. Invasive pathogens at alpine treeline: Consequences for treeline dynamics. Phys. Geogr. 2007, 28:397-418. [Online]. doi: 10.2747/0272-3646.28.5.397
241. Tomback DF, Hoffmann LA, Sund SK. Coevolution of whitebark pine and nutcrackers: implications for forest regeneration. Symposium on Whitebark Pine Ecosystems: Ecology and Management of a High-Mountain Resource, Bozeman, MT, 1989 March 29-31 1990, 118-129. Schmidt WC, McDonald KJ, . in, Ed. By, comps. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270. Ogden, UT, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, pp
242. Tomback DF, Sund SK, Hoffmann LA. Post-fire regeneration of Pinus albicaulis: Height-age relationships, age structure, and microsite characteristics. Can. J. For. Res. 1993, 23:113-119. [Online]. doi: 10.1139/x93-018
243. Tomback D F, Clary J K, Koehler J, Hoff R J, Arno S F. The effects of blister rust on post-fire regeneration of whitebark pine: the Sundance Burn of northern Idaho (U.S.A.). Conserv. Biol. 1995, 9:654-664. [Online]. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09030654.x
244. Tomback D F, Anderies A J, Carsey K S, Powell M L, Mellmann-Brown S. Delayed seed germination in whitebark pine and regeneration patterns following the Yellowstone fires. Ecology 2001a, 82:2587-2600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2679938, [Online]. Available:
245. Tomback D F, Arno S F, Keane R E. The compelling case for management intervention. Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration 2001b, 3-25. Tomback D F, Arno S F, Keane R E. In, Ed. By, Washington, DC, Island Press, pp
246. Tomback D F, Keane R E, McCaughey W W, Smith C M. Methods for surveying and monitoring whitebark pine for blister rust infection and damage. March 2005. manual 2005a, http://www.whitebarkfound.org/monitoring.html, Missoula, MT, Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation, p. [Online]. Available:
247. Tomback D F, Schoettle A W, Chevalier K E, Jones C A. Life on the edge for limber pine: Seed dispersal within a peripheral population. Écoscience 2005b, 12:519-529.
248. Tymstra C. An historical review of wildland fires in Yoho National Park 1988, Field, BC, Yoho National Park, p
249. Endangered, Threatened, Proposed, Candidate, and Species of Concern, and Designated Critical Habitat, [in Washington State]. 2009, http://www.pws.gov/endangered/, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Online]. Available:
250. The PLANTS Database 2009, http://plants.usda.gov, USDA NRCS, Baton Rouge, LA, National Plant Data Center, Online]. Available:
251. Van Mantgem P J, Stephenson N L, Byrne J C, Daniels L D, Franklin J F, Fulé P Z, Harmon M E, Larson A J, Smith J M, Taylor A H, Veblen T T. Widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western United States. Science 2009, 323:521-524. [Online]. doi: 10.1126/science.1165000
252. Van Mantgem P J, Stephenson N L, Kiefer M B, Keeley J. Effects of an introduced pathogen and fire exclusion on the demography of sugar pine. Ecol. Appl. 2004, 14:1590-1602. [Online]. doi: 10.1890/035109
253. Van Wagner C E, Finney M A, Heathcott M. Historical fire cycles in the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks. Forest Science 2006, 52:704-717.
254. Vander Wall S B. Foraging of Clark's nutcracker on rapidly changing pine seed resources. Condor 1988, 90:621-631. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1368351, [Online]. doi:
255. Vander Wall S B. Dispersal of singleleaf piñon pine (Pinus monophylla) by seed-caching rodents. J. Mammal. 1997, 78:181-191. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1382651, [Online]. Available:
256. Vander Wall S B. Effects of seed size of wind-dispersed pines (Pinus) on secondary seed dispersal and caching behavior of rodents. Oikos 2003, 100:25-34. [Online]. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.11973.x
257. Vander Wall S B, Balda R P. Coadaptations of the Clark's nutcracker and piñon pine for efficient seed harvest and dispersal. Ecol. Monogr. 1977, 47:89-111. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1942225, [Online]. Available:
258. Vasek F C, Thorne R F. Transmontane coniferous vegetation. Terrestrial vegetation of California 1977, 797-832. Barbour M G, Major J. In, Ed. By, New York, John Wiley and Sons, pp
259. Veblen T T. Age and size structure of subalpine forests in the Colorado Front Range. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1986, 113:225-240. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2996361, [Online]. doi:
260. Vogler D R, Charlet D A. First report of the white pine blister rust fungus (Cronartium ribicola) infecting whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) and Ribes spp. in the Jarbidge Mountains of northeastern Nevada. Plant Dis. 2004, 88:772. [Online]. doi: 10.1094/PDIS.2004.88.7.772B
261. Walsh J R. Fire regimes and stand dynamics of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) communities in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 2005, Fort Collin, CO, Colorado State University, Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Watershed Stewardship, p, Thesis
262. Warwell M V, Rehfeldt G E, Crookston N L. Modeling contemporary climate profiles and predicting their response to global warming for whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). Whitebark Pine: A Pacific Coast Perspective, Ashland, OR, 2006 August 27-31 2007, 139-142. http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/nr/fid/wbpine/papers/2007-wbp-climate-warwell.pd f, Goheen E M, Sniezko R A, . In, Ed. By, R6-NR-FHP-2007-01, Portland, OR, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, pp, Online]. Available:
263. Webster K L, Johnson E A. The importance of regional dynamics in local populations of limber pine (Pinus flexilis). Écoscience 2000, 7:175-182.
264. Wells P V. Late Quaternary vegetation of the Great Plains. Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Science 1983a, 9:83-89.
265. Wells P V. Paleobiogeography of montane islands in the Great Basin since the last glaciopluvial. Ecol. Monogr. 1983b, 53:341-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1942644, [Online]. Available:
266. White C A. Wildland fires in Banff National Park, 1880-1980 1985, Occasional Pap. 3, Ottawa, ON, Parks Canada
267. Wilson B. Status of the whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in Alberta 2007, http://www.srd.gov.ab.ca/fishwildlife/status/pdf/Whitebark_Pine_Status_R eport63_WEB.pdf, Wildlife Status Report 63, Edmonton, AB, Alberta Sustainable Resource Development and Alberta Conservation Association, p. [Online]. Available:
268. Wood C S, Unger L. Mountain pine beetle-a history of outbreaks in pine forests in British Columbia, 1910 to 1995 1996, Victoria, BC, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre
269. Yeaton R I. The successional replacement of ponderosa pine by sugar pine in the Sierra Nevada. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1983, 110:292-297. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2996181, [Online]. doi:
270. Yeaton R I. Aspects of the population biology of sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.) on an elevational gradient in the Sierra Nevada of Central California. Am. Midl. Nat. 1984, 111:126-137. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2425550, [Online]. doi:
271. Zambino P J. Biology and pathology of ribes and their implications for management of white pine blister rust. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:264-291.
272. Zeglen S. Whitebark pine and white pine blister rust in British Columbia, Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 2002, 32:1265-1274. [Online]. doi: 10.1139/X02-049
273. Zeglen S, Pronos J, Merler H. Silvicultural management of white pines in western North America. Forest Pathology 2010, 40:347-368.