Fatty acid supply to the human fetus

Annual Review of Nutrition

Volumn 30, Issue , 2010, Pages 237-255

  Haggarty, Paul ^a  

^a ROWETT RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

docosahexaenoic acid; fatty acid binding proteins; placental transport; polyunsaturated; pregnancy

Indexed keywords

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; FATTY ACID; FATTY ACID TRANSPORTER; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; UNSATURATED FATTY ACID;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ENERGY METABOLISM; FAT INTAKE; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS; FATTY ACID TRANSPORT; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HUMAN; LIPID STORAGE; MATERNAL NUTRITION; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; PLACENTAL TRANSFER; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TRANSPORT KINETICS; DEFICIENCY; DRUG EFFECTS; FEMALE; FETOMATERNAL TRANSFUSION; FETUS; GESTATIONAL AGE; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; PLACENTA;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED; FEMALE; FETAL DEVELOPMENT; FETUS; GESTATIONAL AGE; HUMANS; MATERNAL NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; MATERNAL-FETAL EXCHANGE; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS; PLACENTA; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA;

EID: 77955601911     PISSN: 01999885     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.012809.104742     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Agren JJ, Vidgren HM, Valve RS, Laakso M, Uusitupa MI. 2001. Postprandial responses of individual fatty acids in subjects homozygous for the threonine-or alanine-encoding allele in codon 54 of the intestinal fatty acid binding protein 2 gene. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73:31-35
2. Al MD, Van Houwelingen AC, Hornstra G. 2000. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, pregnancy, and pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:285-91S
3. Al MD, Van Houwelingen AC, Kester AD, Hasaart TH, de Jong AE, Hornstra G. 1995. Maternal essential fatty acid patterns during normal pregnancy and their relationship to the neonatal essential fatty acid status. Br. J. Nutr. 74:55-68
4. Benassayag C, Mignot TM, Haourigui M, Civel C, Hassid J, et al. 1997. High polyunsaturated fatty acid, thromboxane A2, and alpha-fetoprotein concentrations at the human feto-maternal interface. J. Lipid Res. 38:276-286
5. Benassayag C, Rigourd V, Mignot TM, Hassid J, Leroy MJ, et al. 1999. Does high polyunsaturated free fatty acid level at the feto-maternal interface alter steroid hormone message during pregnancy? Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 60:393-399
6. Berghaus TM, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B. 2000. Essential fatty acids and their long-chain polyunsaturatedmetabolites in maternal and cord plasma triglycerides during late gestation. Biol. Neonate 77:96-100
7. Bonet B, Brunzell JD, Gown AM, Knopp RH. 1992. Metabolism of very-low-density lipoprotein triglyceride by human placental cells: the role of lipoprotein lipase. Metabolism 41:596-603
8. Booth C, Elphick MC,Hendrickse W, Hull D. 1981. Investigation of [14C] linoleic acid conversion into [14C] arachidonic acid and placental transfer of linoleic and palmitic acids across the perfused human placenta. J. Dev. Physiol. 3:177-189
9. Bouchard TJ Jr. 1998. Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities. Hum. Biol. 70:257-279
10. Brouillette C, Bosse Y, Perusse L, Gaudet D, Vohl MC. 2004. Effect of liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP) T94A missense mutation on plasma lipoprotein responsiveness to treatment with fenofibrate. J. Hum. Genet. 49:424-432
11. Burdge GC. 2004. Alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in men and women: nutritional and biological implications. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 7:137-144
12. Burdge GC, Calder PC. 2005. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human adults. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 45:581-597
13. Burdge GC, Wootton SA. 2002. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Br. J. Nutr. 88:411-420
14. Butte NF. 2000. Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in pregnancy: normal compared with gestational diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:1256-1261
15. Campbell FM, Bush PG, Veerkamp JH, Dutta-Roy AK. 1998. Detection and cellular localization of plasma membrane-associated and cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding proteins in human placenta. Placenta 19:409-415
16. Campbell FM, Clohessy AM, Gordon MJ, Page KR, Dutta-Roy AK. 1997. Uptake of long chain fatty acids by human placental choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells: role of plasma membrane fatty acid-binding protein. J. Lipid Res. 38:2558-2568
17. Campbell FM, Dutta-Roy AK. 1995. Plasma membrane fatty acid-binding protein (FABPpm) is exclusively located in the maternal facing membranes of the human placenta. FEBS Lett. 375:227-230
18. Campbell FM, Gordon MJ, Dutta-Roy AK. 1998. Placental membrane fatty acid-binding protein preferentially binds arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids. Life Sci. 63:235-240
19. Campbell FM, Gordon MJ, Hoggard N, Dutta-Roy AK. 1998. Interaction of free fatty acids with human leptin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 247:654-658
20. Carnielli VP, Wattimena DJ, Luijendijk IH, Boerlage A, Degenhart HJ, Sauer PJ. 1996. The very low birth weight premature infant is capable of synthesizing arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids from linoleic and linolenic acids. Pediatr. Res. 40:169-174
21. Caspi A, Williams B, Kim-Cohen J, Craig IW,Milne BJ, et al. 2007. Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:18860-18865
22. Catalano PM, Ehrenberg HM. 2006. The short-and long-term implications of maternal obesity on the mother and her offspring. BJOG 113:1126-1133
23. Chambaz J, Ravel D, Manier MC, Pepin D, Mulliez N, Bereziat G. 1985. Essential fatty acids interconversion in the human fetal liver. Biol. Neonate 47:136-140
24. Chevrier J,Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Mauriege P, Despres JP, Tremblay A. 2000. Body weight loss increases plasma and adipose tissue concentrations of potentially toxic pollutants in obese individuals. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 24:1272-1278
25. Cho HP, Nakamura M, Clarke SD. 1999. Cloning, expression, and fatty acid regulation of the human delta-5 desaturase. J. Biol. Chem. 274:37335-37339
26. Christensen MS, Hoy CE, Becker CC, RedgraveTG.1995. Intestinal absorption and lymphatic transport of eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic (DHA), and decanoic acids: dependence on intramolecular triacylglycerol structure. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61:56-61
27. Clandinin MT, Chappell JE, Heim T, Swyer PR, Chance GW. 1981. Fatty acid utilization in perinatal de novo synthesis of tissues. Early Hum. Dev. 5:355-366
28. Clandinin MT, Chappell JE, Leong S, Heim T, Swyer PR, Chance GW. 1980. Intrauterine fatty acid accretion rates in human brain: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Hum. Dev. 4:121-129 (Pubitemid 10064580)
29. Clausson B, Lichtenstein P, Cnattingius S. 2000. Genetic influence on birthweight and gestational length determined by studies in offspring of twins. BJOG 107:375-381
30. Cohen JT, Bellinger DC, ConnorWE, Shaywitz BA. 2005. A quantitative analysis of prenatal intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognitive development. Am. J. Prev. Med. 29:366-374
31. Cohen JT, BellingerDC, Shaywitz BA. 2005.Aquantitative analysis of prenatalmethylmercury exposure and cognitive development. Am. J. Prev. Med. 29:353-365
32. ConnorWE, Lowensohn R, Hatcher L. 1996. Increased docosahexaenoic acid levels in human newborn infants by administration of sardines and fish oil during pregnancy. Lipids 31(Suppl.):S183-87
33. Crawford MA, Hassam AG, Williams SCR, Whitehouse WL. 1976. Essential fatty acids and brain growth. Lancet i:452-453
34. Cummings SW, Hatley W, Simpson ER, Ohashi M. 1982. The binding of high and low density lipoproteins to human placental membrane fractions. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 54:903-908
35. Damcott CM, Feingold E, Moffett SP, Barmada MM, Marshall JA, et al. 2003. Variation in the FABP2 promoter alters transcriptional activity and is associated with body composition and plasma lipid levels. Hum. Genet. 112:610-616
36. Daniels JL, Longnecker MP, Rowland AS, Golding J. 2004. Fish intake during pregnancy and early cognitive development of offspring. Epidemiology 15:394-402
37. Darmady JM, Postle AD. 1982. Lipid metabolism in pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 89:211-215
38. Davey SG, Ebrahim S. 2005. What can Mendelian randomisation tell us about modifiable behavioural and environmental exposures? BMJ 330:1076-1079
39. Deary IJ, Spinath FM, Bates TC. 2006. Genetics of intelligence. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 14:690-700
40. DuttaroyAK. 2009. Transport of fatty acids across the human placenta: a review. Prog. Lipid Res. 48:52-61
41. Economides DL, Crook D, Nicolaides KH. 1988. Investigation of hypertriglyceridemia in small for gestational age fetuses. Fetal Ther. 3:165-172
42. Elphick MC, Filshie GM, Hull D. 1978. The passage of fat emulsion across the human placenta. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 85:610-618 (Pubitemid 8383311)
43. Engl J, Ciardi C, Tatarczyk T, Kaser S, Laimer M, et al. 2008. A-FABP: a biomarker associated with the metabolic syndrome and/or an indicator of weight change? Obesity (Silver Spring) 16:1838-1842
44. Falandysz J. 1994. Polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in cod-liver oil: evidence of a steady-state condition of these compounds in the Baltic area oils and levels noted in Atlantic oils. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 27:266-271
45. Farquharson J, Cockburn F, Patrick WA, Jamieson EC, Logan RW. 1993. Effect of diet on infant subcutaneous tissue triglyceride fatty acids. Arch. Dis. Child 69:589-593
46. Fewtrell MS, Abbott RA, Kennedy K, Singhal A, Morley R, et al. 2004. Randomized, double-blind trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with fish oil and borage oil in preterm infants. J. Pediatr. 144:471-479
47. Fewtrell MS, Morley R, Abbott RA, Singhal A, Isaacs EB, et al. 2002. Double-blind, randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in formula fed to preterm infants. Pediatrics 110:73-82
48. Fisher E, Weikert C, Klapper M, Lindner I, Mohlig M, et al. 2007. L-FABP T94A is associated with fasting triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol in women. Mol. Genet. Metab. 91:278-284
49. Frayn KN. 1996. Metabolic Regulation. London: Portland Press 50. Frisch RE. 1987. Body fat, menarche, fitness and fertility. Hum. Reprod. 2:521-533
50. Fruhbeck G, Gomez-Ambrosi J, Salvador J. 2001. Leptin-induced lipolysis opposes the tonic inhibition of endogenous adenosine in white adipocytes. FASEB J. 15:333-340
51. Gale CR, Robinson SM, Godfrey KM, Law CM, Schlotz W, O'Callaghan FJ. 2008. Oily fish intake during pregnancy\association with lower hyperactivity but not with higher full-scale IQ in offspring. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 49:1061-1068
52. Glatz JFC, Luiken JJ, van Nieuwenhoven FA, van der Vusse GJ. 1997. Molecular mechanism of cellular uptake and intracellular translocation of fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 57:3-9
53. Glatz JFC., van der Vusse GJ. 1996. Cellular fatty acid-binding proteins: their function and physiological significance. Progress Lipid Res. 35:243-282
54. Glatz JFC, vanNieuwenhoven FA, Luiken JJFP, Schaap FG, van derVusse GJ. 1997. Role of membraneassociated and cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding proteins in cellular fatty acid metabolism. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 57:373-378
55. Gomez L, Carrascosa A, Yeste D, Potau N, Rique S, et al. 1999. Leptin values in placental cord blood of human newborns with normal intrauterine growth after 30-42 weeks of gestation. Horm. Res. 51:10-14
56. Grandjean P,Weihe P. 2003. Arachidonic acid status during pregnancy is associated with polychlorinated biphenyl exposure. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:715-719
57. Haggarty P. 2002. Placental regulation of fatty acid delivery and its effect on fetal growth: a review. Placenta 23(Suppl. A):S28-38
58. Haggarty P, Ashton J, Brenna JT, Corso TN, Lakin V, et al. 1998. Estimating C22;6n-3 synthesis in human pregnancy from natural variations in 13C abundance. In Essential Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids, ed. R Reimersma, R Armstrong, RWKelly, RWilson, pp. 108-112 Urbana, IL: AOCS Press
59. Haggarty P, Ashton J, Joynson M, Abramovich DR, Page K. 1999. Effect of maternal polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration on transport by the human placenta. Biol. Neonate 75:350-359
60. Haggarty P, Page K, Abramovich DR, Ashton J, Brown D. 1997. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid transport across the perfused human placenta. Placenta 18:635-642
61. Haggarty P, Wood M, Ferguson E, Hoad G, Srikantharajah A, et al. 2006. Fatty acid metabolism in human preimplantation embryos. Hum. Reprod. 21:766-773
62. Helland IB, Saugstad OD, Saarem K, Van Houwelingen AC, Nylander G, Drevon CA. 2006. Supplementation of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation reduces maternal plasma lipid levels and provides DHA to the infants. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 19:397-406
63. Helland IB, Saugstad OD, Smith L, Saarem K, Solvoll K, et al. 2001. Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. Pediatrics 108:E82
64. Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. 2003. Maternal supplementation with verylong-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics 111:e39-44
65. Henderson L,Gregory J, Swan G. 2002. The National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults Aged 19 to 64 Years. Types and Quantities of Food Consumed. London: Off. Natl. Stat.
66. Hendrickse W, Stammers JP, Hull D. 1985. The transfer of free fatty acids across the human placenta. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 92:945-952
67. Herrera E. 2000. Metabolic adaptations in pregnancy and their implications for the availability of substrates to the fetus. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54(Suppl. 1):S47-51
68. Herrera E, Lasuncion MA, Gomez-Coronado D, Aranda P, Lopez-Luna P, Maier I. 1988. Role of lipoprotein lipase activity on lipoproteinmetabolism and the fate of circulating triglycerides in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 158:1575-1583
69. Hoggard N, Crabtree J, Allstaff S, Abramovich DR, Haggarty P. 2001. Leptin secretion to both the maternal and fetal circulation in the ex vivo perfused human term placenta. Placenta 22:347-352
70. Horvath A,Koletzko B, SzajewskaH. 2007. Effect of supplementation of women in high-risk pregnancies with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on pregnancy outcomes and growth measures at birth: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Br. J. Nutr. 98:253-259
71. Hoving EB, van Beusekom CM,NijeboerHJ, Muskiet FA. 1994. Gestational age dependency of essential fatty acids in cord plasma cholesterol esters and triglycerides. Pediatr. Res. 35:461-469
72. Hytten FE. 1974. Weight gain in pregnancy. In Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics, ed. FE Hytten, JG Chamberlain, pp. 193-233. Oxford: Blackwell Sci.
73. Imbeault P, Chevrier J, Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Despres JP, et al. 2001. Increase in plasma pollutant levels in response to weight loss in humans is related to in vitro subcutaneous adipocyte basal lipolysis. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25:1585-1591
74. Innis SM, Elias SL. 2003. Intakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:473-478
75. Jacobs MN, Santillo D, Johnston PA, Wyatt CL, French MC. 1998. Organochlorine residues in fish oil dietary supplements: comparison with industrial grade oils. Chemosphere 37:1709-1721
76. Jamieson EC, Farquharson J, Logan RW, Howatson AG, Patrick WJ, et al. 1999. Infant cerebellar gray and white matter fatty acids in relation to age and diet. Lipids 34:1065-1071
77. Jedrychowski W, Perera F, Jankowski J, Rauh V, Flak E, et al. 2007. Fish consumption in pregnancy, cord blood mercury level and cognitive and psychomotor development of infants followed over the first three years of life: Krakow epidemiologic study. Environ. Int. 33:1057-1062
78. Kaminsky S, Sibley CP,MareshM, Thomas CR, D'Souza SW. 1991. The effects of diabetes on placental lipase activity in the rat and human. Pediatr. Res. 30:541-543
79. Kamp F, Zakim D, Zhang F, Noy N, Hamilton JA. 1995. Fatty acid flip-flop in phospholipid bilayers is extremely fast. Biochemistry 34:11928-11937
80. Katzmarzyk PT, Perusse L, Bouchard C. 1999. Genetics of abdominal visceral fat levels. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 11:225-235
81. Kaufmann P, Scheffen I. 1998. Placental development. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, ed. RA Polin, WWFox, 1:59-Philadelphia PA: Saunders
82. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders 83. Khandoker M, Tsujii H. 1999. Effect of exogenous fatty acids on in vitro development of rat embryos. Asian-Austr. J. Animal Sci. 12:169-173 (Pubitemid 129613300)
83. Kim JY, Kinoshita M,Ohnishi M, Fukui Y. 2001. Lipid and fatty acid analysis of fresh and frozen-thawed immature and in vitro matured bovine oocytes. Reproduction 122:131-138
84. King JC. 2006. Maternal obesity, metabolism, and pregnancy outcomes. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 26:271-291
85. Kramer MS. 1987. Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull. World Health Org. 65:663-737
86. Kuhn DC, Crawford M. 1986. Placental essential fatty acid transport and prostaglandin synthesis. Prog. Lipid Res. 25:345-353
87. Lafond J, Simoneau L, Savard R, Gagnon MC. 1994. Linoleic acid transport by human placental syncytiotrophoblast membranes. Eur. J. Biochem. 226:707-713
88. Lakin V, Haggarty P, Abramovich DR, Ashton J, Moffat CF, et al. 1998. Dietary intake and tissue concentration of fatty acids in omnivore, vegetarian and diabetic pregnancy. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 59:209-220
89. Lands WE, Inoue M, Sugiura Y, Okuyama H. 1982. Selective incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids into phosphatidylcholine by rat liver microsomes. J. Biol. Chem. 257:14968-14972
90. Larque E, Demmelmair H, Berger B, Hasbargen U, Koletzko B. 2003. In vivo investigation of the placental transfer of (13)C-labeled fatty acids in humans. J. Lipid Res. 44:49-55 (Pubitemid 36114769)
91. Leaf DA, Connor WE, Barstad L, Sexton G. 1995. Incorporation of dietary n-3 fatty acids into the fatty acids of human adipose tissue and plasma lipid classes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62:68-73
92. Linnemann K, Malek A, Sager R, Blum WF, Schneider H, Fusch C. 2000. Leptin production and release in the dually in vitro perfused human placenta. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85:4298-4301
93. Lopez-Miranda J, Perez-Martinez P,Marin C, Moreno JA, Gomez P, Perez-Jimenez F. 2006. Postprandial lipoprotein metabolism, genes and risk of cardiovascular disease. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 17:132-138
94. Magnus P, Gjessing HK, Skrondal A, Skjaerven R. 2001. Paternal contribution to birth weight. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 55:873-877
95. Magnusson AL, Waterman IJ, Wennergren M, Jansson T, Powell TL. 2004. Triglyceride hydrolase activities and expression of fatty acid binding proteins in the human placenta in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction and diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89:4607-4614
96. Makrides M, Duley L, Olsen SF. 2006. Marine oil, and other prostaglandin precursor, supplementation for pregnancy uncomplicated by pre-eclampsia or intrauterine growth restriction. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3:CD003402
97. Makrides M, Neumann MA, Byard RW, Simmer K, Gibson RA. 1994. Fatty acid composition of brain, retina, and erythrocytes in breast fed infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60:189-194
98. Malcolm CA, Hamilton R, McCulloch DL,Montgomery C,Weaver LT. 2003. Scotopic electroretinogram in term infants born ofmothers supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44:3685-3691
99. Malcolm CA, McCulloch DL, Montgomery C, Shepherd A, Weaver LT. 2003. Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy and visual evoked potential development in term infants: a double blind, prospective, randomised trial. Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 88:F383-90
100. Masson LF, McNeill G, Tomany JO, Simpson JA, Peace HS, et al. 2003. Statistical approaches for assessing the relative validity of a food-frequency questionnaire: use of correlation coefficients and the kappa statistic. Public Health Nutr. 6:313-321
101. Masuzaki H, Ogawa Y, Sagawa N, Hosoda K, Matsumoto T, et al. 1997. Nonadipose tissue production of leptin: leptin as a novel placenta-derived hormone in humans. Nat. Med. 3:1029-1033
102. Matorras R, Ruiz JI, Mendoza R, Ruiz N, Sanjurjo P, Rodriguez-Escudero FJ. 1998. Fatty acid composition of fertilization-failed human oocytes. Hum. Reprod. 13:2227-2230
103. McDonald RG, Young M, Hytten FE. 1975. Changes in plasma nonesterified fatty acids and serum glycerol in pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 82:460-466
104. Meirhaeghe A, Martin G, Nemoto M, Deeb S, Cottel D, et al. 2000. Intronic polymorphism in the fatty acid transport protein 1 gene is associated with increased plasma triglyceride levels in a French population. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20:1330-1334
105. Mericq V, Iniguez G, Martinez A, Avila A, Hernandez MI, et al. 2008. Ala54Thr polymorphism of the fatty acid-binding protein 2 gene (intestinal-type FABP) is associated with changes in insulin sensitivity in SGA pubertal girls. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 21:117-125
106. Montgomery C, Speake BK, Cameron A, Sattar N, Weaver LT. 2003. Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and fetal accretion. Br. J. Nutr. 90:135-145
107. Mortimer BC, Holthouse DJ, Martins IJ, Stick RV, Redgrave TG. 1994. Effects of triacylglycerolsaturated acyl chains on the clearance of chylomicron-like emulsions from the plasma of the rat. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1211:171-180
108. Mott GE. 1998. Developmental physiology of serum cholesterol and lipoprotein concentrations. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, ed. RA Polin,WWFox, 1:527-535. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders 110.
109. Murakami K, Chan SY, Routtenberg A. 1986. Protein kinase C activation by cis-fatty acid in the absence of Ca2+ and phospholipids. J. Biol. Chem. 261:15424-15429
110. NaoumHG,DeChazal RC,Eaton BM,Contractor SF. 1987. Characterization and specificity of lipoprotein binding to term human placental membranes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 902:193-199
111. Nishizuka Y. 1988. The molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase C and its implications for cellular regulation. Nature 334:661-665
112. Nonogaki T, Noda Y, Goto Y, Kishi J,MoriT. 1994. Developmental blockage ofmouse embryos caused by fatty acids. J. Assist. Reprod. Genet. 11:482-488
113. Nozaki S, Tanaka T, Yamashita S, Sohmiya K, Yoshizumi T, et al. 1999. CD36 mediates long-chain fatty acid transport in human myocardium: complete myocardial accumulation defect of radiolabeled long-chain fatty acid analog in subjects with CD36 deficiency. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 192:129-135
114. Oken E, Radesky JS, Wright RO, Bellinger DC, Amarasiriwardena CJ, et al. 2008. Maternal fish intake during pregnancy, blood mercury levels, and child cognition at age 3 years in a US cohort. Am. J. Epidemiol. 167:1171-1181 (Pubitemid 351670639)
115. Otto SJ, van Houwelingen AC, Antal M, Manninen A, Godfrey K, et al. 1997. Maternal and neonatal essential fatty acid status in phospholipids: an international comparative study. Eur. J. Clin.Nutr. 51:232-242
116. PatelMN, Kleinfeld AM, Richeiri GV, Ruben S, HiattM, Hegyi T. 1997. Serum levels of unbound free fatty acids. I: Normative data in term newborn infants. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 16:81-84
117. Powell TL, Jansson T, Illsley NP, Wennergren M, Korotkova M, Strandvik B. 1999. Composition and permeability of syncytiotrophoblast plasma membranes in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1420:86-94
118. PrattHPM,GeorgeMA. 1989. Organisation and assembly of the surface membrane during early cleavage of the mouse embryo. Roux Arch. Dev. Biol. 193:170-178
119. Ramsay JE, Ferrell WR, Crawford L, Wallace AM, Greer IA, Sattar N. 2002. Maternal obesity is associated with dysregulation of metabolic, vascular, and inflammatory pathways. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87:4231-4237
120. Rothwell JE, Elphick MC. 1982. Lipoprotein lipase activity in human and guinea-pig placenta. J. Dev. Physiol. 4:153-159
121. Ruyle M, Connor WE, Anderson GJ, Lowensohn RI. 1990. Placental transfer of essential fatty acids in humans: venous-arterial difference for docosahexaenoic acid in fetal umbilical erythrocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:7902-7906
122. Salem N,Wegher B,Mena P, Uauy R. 1996. Arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids are biosynthesized from their 18-carbon precursors in human infants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:49-54
123. Sebire NJ, Jolly M, Harris JP, Wadsworth J, Joffe M, et al. 2001. Maternal obesity and pregnancy outcome: a study of 287,213 pregnancies in London. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25:1175-1182
124. Shafrir E, Barash V. 1987. Placental function in maternal-fetal fat transport in diabetes. Biol. Neonate 51:102-112
125. Sparks JW. 1984. Human intrauterine growth and nutrient accretion. Semin. Perinatol. 8:74-93
126. Sparks JW, Girard JR, Battaglia FC. 1980. An estimate of the caloric requirements of the human fetus. Biol. Neonate 3:113-119
127. Sprecher H, Chen Q. 1999. Polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis: a microsomal-peroxisomal process. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 60:317-321 (Pubitemid 29401786)
128. Thomas CR, Lowy C. 1987. The interrelationships between circulating maternal esterified and nonesterified fatty acids in pregnant guinea pigs, and their relative contribution to the fetal circulation. J. Dev. Physiol. 9:203-214
129. Tobin KA, Johnsen GM, Staff AC, Duttaroy AK. 2009. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid transport across human placental choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells. Placenta 30:41-47
130. Van Duyne CM, Havel RJ. 1959. Plasma unesterified fatty acid concentration in fetal and neonatal life. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 102:599-602
131. Van Houwelingen AC, Sorensen JD, Hornstra G, Simonis MM, Boris J, et al. 1995. Essential fatty acid status in neonates after fish-oil supplementation during late pregnancy. Br. J. Nutr. 74:723-731
132. Veerkamp JH. 1995. Fatty-acid transport and fatty acid binding proteins. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 54:23-37
133. Veerkamp JH, Peeters RA, Maatman RG. 1991. Structural and functional features of different types of cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding proteins. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1081:1-24
134. Veerkamp JH, van Moerkerk HTB, Zimmerman AW. 2000. Effect of fatty acid-binding proteins an intermembrane fatty acid transport: studies on different types and mutant proteins. Eur. J. Biochem. 267:5959-5966
135. Velzing-Aarts FV, Van Der Klis FR, Van Der Dijs FP, van Beusekom CM, Landman H, et al. 2001. Effect of three low-dose fish oil supplements, administered during pregnancy, on neonatal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status at birth. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 65:51-57
136. Vincent S, Planells R, Defoort C, Bernard MC, Gerber M, et al. 2002. Genetic polymorphisms and lipoprotein responses to diets. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 61:427-434
137. Wass P, Waldenstrom U, Rossner S, Hellberg D. 1997. An android body fat distribution in females impairs the pregnancy rate of in-vitro fertilization-embryo transfer. Hum. Reprod. 12:2057-2060
138. Waterman RA, Wall RJ. 1988. Lipid interactions with in vitro development of mammalian zygotes. Gamete Res. 21:243-254
139. Widdowson EM. 1968. Growth and composition of the fetus and newborn. In The Biology of Gestation, ed. NS Assali, 2:1-New York: Academic
140. Deleted in proof
141. Widdowson EM. 1974. Growth and composition of the fetus and newborn. In Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics, ed. FE Hytten, JG Chamberlain, pp. 1-49. Oxford: Blackwell Sci.
142. Widdowson EM, Spray CM. 1951. Chemical development in utero. Arch. Dis. Child 26:205-214
143. Wittmaack FM,GafvelsME, BronnerM,MatsuoH,McCraeKR, et al. 1995. Localization and regulation of the human very low density lipoprotein/ apolipoprotein-E receptor: trophoblast expression predicts a role for the receptor in placental lipid transport. Endocrinology 136:340-348
144. Yanai H, Chiba H, Fujiwara H, Morimoto M, Abe K, et al. 2000. Phenotype-genotype correlation in CD36 deficiency types I and II. Thromb. Haemost. 84:436-441
145. Zaadstra BM, Seidell JC, Van Noord PAH, Te VE, Habbema JDF, et al. 1993. Fat and female fecundity: prospective study of effect of body fat distribution on conception rates. Br. Med. J. 306:484-487
146. Zimmermann T, Winkler L, Moller U, Schubert H, Goetze E. 1979. Synthesis of arachidonic acid in the human placenta in vitro. Biol. Neonate 35:209-212