Capitalism and the jews

Capitalism and the Jews

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Muller, Jerry Z ^a  

^a CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA   (United States)

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References (339)

1. On the subject of merchant minorities see Daniel Chirot and Anthony Reid, eds., Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe (Seattle, 1997)
2. Joel Kotkin, Tribes: How Race, Religion, and Identity Determine Success in the New Global Economy (New York, 1994).
3. On merchant minorities and their political vulnerability see Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, N.Y., 1983), 101-9
4. Yuri Slezkine, The Jewish Century (Princeton, N.J., 2004), 20-39.
5. Amy Chua deals with tensions between democracy and disparate ethnic achievement in World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (New York, 2003)
6. while systematically ignoring the role of culture and of human capital in ex-plaining the success of what she terms "market-dominant minorities." There is a sensible and wide-ranging discussion in Thomas Sowell, "Are Jews Generic?" in his Black Rednecks and White Liberals (San Francisco, 2005), 65-110.
7. For a concise exploration of this strategy see Ezra Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics (New York, 1993), 16-17.
8. Shlomo Avineri, The Making of Modern Zionism: The Intellectual Origins of the Jewish State (New York, 1981), 69.
9. This is the theme of Hume's essay "Of Interest," in David Hume, Essays Moral Political, and Literary, ed. Eugene F. Miller (Indianapolis, 1987).
10. For Adam Smith's arguments in favor of a legal cap on interest see An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
11. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws (1748), part 4, book 20, chap. 1.
12. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws part 4, book 20.
13. Aristotle, Politics, ed. Carnes Lord (Chicago, 1984), book 1, chap. 10.
14. Benjamin Nelson, The Idea of Usury: From Tribal Brotherhood to Universal Otherhood, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1969), chap. 1.
15. John W. Baldwin, The Medieval Theories of the Just Price: Romanists, Canonists, and Theologians in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (Philadelphia, 1959), 33-37.
16. R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (London, 1926), 36-37, for examples drawn from medieval England; Dante, Inferno, Cantos XI, XVII.
17. Lester K. Little, Religious Poverty and the Profi t Economy in Medieval Europe (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978), 178-80.
18. On the church's changing conception of usury in this period
19. Jacques Le Goff, Your Money or Your Life: Economy and Religion in the Middle Ages (New York, 1988).
20. Fabian Wittreck, Geld als Instrument der Gerechtigkeit: Die Geldrechtslehre des Hl. Thomas von Aquin in ihrem interkulturellen Kontext (Paderborn, 2002), 119ff.
21. James A. Brundage, "Usury," in Dictionary of the Ages, ed.
22. Joseph R. Strayer (New York, 1989), 12:335-39
23. Julius Kirshner, "Raymond de Roover on Scholastic Economic Thought," in Business, Banking, and Economic Thought in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ed. Kirshner (Chicago, 1974), 27-29
24. Raymond de Roover, "Money Theory Prior to Adam Smith: A Revision," in Kirshner, Business, Banking, 317-20.
25. On the casuistry of usury in eighteenth-century France, see Emma Rothschild, Economic Sentiments: Adam Smith, Condorcet, and the Enlightenment (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 42.
26. Quoted in Hans-Jörg Gilomen, "Wucher und Wirt schaft im Mittelalter," Historische Zeitschrift 250, no. 2 (1990), 265.
27. Salo W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 2nd ed., 18 vols. to date (New York, 1952-), 4:203; 9:50
28. Le Goff, Your Money, 9-10. For a useful overview of medieval Christian theological opinion on Jewish moneylending, see Léon Poliakov, Jewish Bankers and the Holy See from the Thirteenth to the Seventeenth Century (London, 1977), 13-35.
29. The question of whether Jews were permitted to engage in usury was disputed within the church, on which see Gilomen, "Wucher und Wirtschaft."
30. Baron, History of the Jews, 11:144; Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews (New Haven, 1943), 193.
31. Baron, History of the Jews, 4:120-21; Little, Religious Poverty, 56.
32. Little, Religious Poverty, 57.
33. Trachtenberg, Devil and the Jews, 191
34. R. Pochia Hsia, "The Usurious Jew: Economic Structure and Religious Representations in Anti-Semitic Discourse," in In and Out of the Ghetto: Jewish-Gentile Relations in Late Medieval and Early Modern Germany, ed. R. Po-chia Hsia and Hartmut Lehman (Cambridge, 1995), 165ff.
35. Baron, History of the Jews, 4:202-7, 9:50ff.
36. Tawney, Religion, 92-95.
37. Herbert Lüthy, "Lending at Interest, or the Competence of Theology in Economic Matters," in Lüthy, From Calvin to Rousseau: Tradition and Modernity from the Reformation to the French Revolution (New York, 1970), 74-79
38. Tawney, Religion, 102-19.
39. Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (New York, 1987), 337, 330.
40. R. H. Helmholz, "Usury and the Medieval English Church Courts," Speculum 61-62 (1986), 380
41. Charles Kindelberger, A Financial History of Western Europe (London, 1984), 41.
42. Kindelberger, Financial History, 41-43
43. Helmholz, "Usury"; Encyclical Letter of Our Holy Father by Divine Providence Pope Leo XIII on the Condition of Labor
44. Oswald von Nell-Breuning, S.J., Reorganization of Social Economy: The Social Encyclical Developed and Explained (New York, 1936), 367
45. Lüthy, "Lending at Interest"
46. John T. Noonan, Jr., The Scholastic Analysis of Usury (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 382, a work that provides the most detailed and precise treatment of the subject, and takes it up to the 1950s.
47. Tawney, Religion, 152-53
48. Jean-Christophe Agnew, Worlds Apart: The Market and the Theater in Anglo-American Thought, 1550-1750 (Cambridge, 1986), 121.
49. Lüthy, "Lending at Interest." On the historiography of usury see Wittreck, Geld als Instrument, 112 n. 175.
50. Francis Bacon, "Of Usury," in Essays of Francis Bacon or Counsels, Civil and Moral (London, 1627).
51. Hume, "Of Interest." See the reference to "usury" on 299. On interest theory in Hume's day see the introduction by Eugene Rotwein to his edition of Hume, Writings on Economics (Madison, 1970), lxvii-lxxii.
52. Bentham's essay can be found in Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings, ed. Werner Stark (London, 1952), and as appendix C in Correspondence of Adam Smith.
53. Letter D5714, March 10, 1754, quoted in Theodore Besterman, Voltaire, 3rd ed. (Chicago, 1976), 350.
54. Voltaire, La Bible enfin expliquée (1776), in Oeuvres Complètes, vol. 30, quoted in Hanna Emmerich, Das Judentum bei Voltaire (Breslau, 1930), 142.
55. Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary, translated by Theodore Besterman (London, 1972), 144. For additional references to the ancient Hebrews as usurers, see the articles "États, Gouvernements" and "Des Loix," section 1 in Philosophical Dictionary, 193, 281.
56. J.G.A. Pocock, Barbarism and Religion, vol. 2, Narratives of Civil Government (Cambridge, 1999), 135.
57. Isaac Eisenstein Barzilay, "The Jew in the Literature of the Enlightenment," Jewish Social Studies 18, no. 4 (1956), 243-61.
58. David McLellan, Friedrich Engels (New York, 1977), 22; on the work's importance in Marx's development
59. Terrell Carver, Marx and Engels: The Intellectual Relationship (Bloomington, 1983), 32, 36-38.
60. Marx characterized it as one of the major infl uences on his thought in his preface to his "Economic-Philosophic Manuscripts" of 1844, Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels Gesamtausgabe (Berlin, 1972-) (hereafter MEGA), 1.2: 326.
61. Friedrich Engels, "Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy," in Karl Marx-Friedrich Engels Collected Works, vol. 3 (Moscow, 1975), 418; "
62. Umrisse zu einer Kritik der Nationalökonomie," in MEGA, 1.3: 467.
63. Engels, "Outlines of a Critique," 418; "
64. Umrisse zu einer Kritik," 1.3: 481.
65. Stefi Jersch-Wenzel, "Legal Status and Emancipa-tion," in German-Jewish History in Modern Times, ed. Michael Meyer, vol. 2 (New York, 1997), 31.
66. Bruno Bauer, Die Judenfrage (Braunschweig, 1843), translated by Helen Lederer as The Jewish Problem (Cincinnati, 1958) and excerpted in
67. Lawrence S. Stepelevich, The Young Hegelians: An Anthology (Cambridge, 1983)
68. Bruno Bauer, "Die Fähigkeit der heutigen Juden und Christen frei zu werden," in Ein und zwanzig Bogen aus der Schweiz, ed. Georg Herwegh (Zurich, 1843), 56-71.
69. Raphael Gross, Carl Schmitt und die Juden (Frankfurt am Main, 2000), 202-44.
70. On Bauer's later anti-Jewish writings, see Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), 214-18.
71. Karl Marx, "Zur Judenfrage," in MEGA, 1.2: 141- 69.
72. With alterations, I have used the translation by Lloyd D. Easton and Kurt H. Guddat, now in Lawrence H. Simon, Karl Marx: Selected Writings (Indianapolis, 1994).
73. Marx, "Theorien über den Mehrwert," in Marx- Engels Werke (Berlin, 1965), vol. 26, part 1, p. 364."Nur war Mandeville natürlich unendlich kühner und ehrlicher als die philisterhafen Apologeten der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft."
74. Marx, "Theorien über den Mehrwert," 525.
75. "Der Kapitalist weiß, daß alle Waaren, wie lumpig sie immer aussehn oder wie schlecht sie immer riechen mögen, im Glauben und in der Wahrheit Geld, innerlich vernschnittne Juden sind, und zudem wunderthätige Mittel, um aus Geld mehr Geld zu machen." Kapital, MEGA, vol. 2, part 6, p. 172, my translation.
76. MEGA, vol. 2, part 6, pp. 239-40. "Das Kapital hat aber einen einzigen Lebenstrieb, den Trieb, sich zu verwerthen, Mehrwerth zu schaffen, mit seinem konstanten Theil, den Produktionsmitteln, die größtmögliche Masse Mehrarbeit einzusaugen."
77. "Den Trieb nach Verlängerung des Arbeitstages, den Wehrwolfheißhunger für Mehrarbeit." MEGA, vol. 2, part 6, p. 249.
78. "Bei dem Kapitalisten jedoch erscheint der Heißhunger nach Mehrarbeit im Drang zu maßloser Verlängerung des Arbeitstags." Capital (Fowkes translation) 346, translation modifi ed; MEGA, vol. 2, part 6, p. 243.
79. MEGA, vol. 2, part 6, pp. 309-10.
80. The link between Marxism and earlier theories of usury is also noted in Bernard Semmel, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire: Theories of Imperialism from Adam Smith to Lenin (Baltimore, 1993), 12-13, 142-43.
81. On which see Semmel, Liberal Ideal, 91-96.
82. Niall Ferguson, The House of Rothschild: The World's Banker, 1849-1999 (New York, 1999), 260-71.
83. Klaus Christian Köhnke, Der junge Simmel im Theoriebeziehungen und sozialen Bewegungen (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), part 3.
84. Georg Simmel, Die Philosophie des Geldes, vol. 6 of Georg Simmel Gesamtausgabe, (Frankfurt am Main, 1989), cited hereafter as PdG
85. Georg Simmel, The Philosophy of Money, 2nd ed., ed. David Frisby (New York, 1990), cited hereafter as PM. PdG, 199-201; PM, 168-72.
86. PdG, 612-16; PM, 443-46. For an earlier formulation, Georg Simmel, "Das Geld in der modernen Kultur" (1896), in Georg Simmel: Schriften zur Soziologie, ed.
87. Heinz-Jürgen Dahme and Otthein Rammstedt (Frankfurt am Main, 1983), 78-94, 90-91, translated as "Money in Modern Culture," in Simmel on Culture, ed.
88. David Frisby and Mike Featherstone (London, 1997), 243-55, 252-53.
89. "Soziologie der Konkurrenz," in Simmel, Schriften zur Soziologie, 177; Georg Simmel, Confl ict and the Web of Group-Affi liations (New York, 1955), 61-62.
90. Simmel, "Das Geld in der modernen Kultur," 80-82; "Money in Modern Culture," 244-46.
91. PdG, 463-65; PM, 342-44.
92. Simmel, PdG, 285-91; PM, 221-27. On Simmel's analysis of the Jews and their relationship to the money economy see Amos Morris-Reich, "The Beautiful Jew Is a Moneylender: Money and Individuality in Simmel's Rehabilitation of the 'Jew,'" Theory, Culture and Society 20, no. 4 (2003), 127-42
93. Freddy Raphäel, "Die Juden und das Geld nach Georg Simmel," in Georg Simmels Philosophie des Geldes: Aufsätze und Materialien, ed. Otthein Rammstedt (Frankfurt am Main, 2003).
94. On Weber's family background see Guenther Roth, "Weber and the Would-Be Englishman: Anglophilia and Family History," in Weber's Protestant Ethic: Origins, Evidence, Contexts, ed. Hartmut Lehmann and Guenther Roth (Cambridge, 1993), 83-120.
95. Max Weber, "Die Börse: I. Zweck und äußere Organisation der Börsen," in Max Weber Gesamtausgabe, ed. Knut Borchardt and Cornelia Meyel-Stoll, part 1, vol. 5, subvolume 1 (Tübingen, 1999), and "Die Börse: II," part 1, vol. 5, subvolume 2.
96. On France, see Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1992), chap. 1; on Germany
97. George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology (New York, 1964).
98. Weber, "Die Börse: I" and "Die Börse: II."
99. Max Weber, "Vorbemerkung," in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religions-soziologie, vol. 1 (Tübingen, 1988 = 1920 edition), 4; Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York, 1958), 17.
100. Max Weber, "Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus," in Weber, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religions-soziolgie, 38-42; Protestant Ethic, 56-57.
101. The anti-Semitic identifi cation of Jews with plutocratic capitalism was by no means confi ned to Germany. For British cases see Jay P. Corrin, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc: The Battle against Modernity (Athens, Ohio, 1981), and with caution, Bryan Cheyette, Constructions of "The Jew" in English Literature and Society (Cambridge, 1993), chap. 5.
102. Friedrich Lenger, Werner Sombart, 1863-1941: Eine Biographie (Munich, 1994), 210. and 452 n. 108. On Fritsch as the Altmeister of National Socialism, see Mosse, Crisis of German Ideology, 112. On the reception of Sombart's work by Jews, see Lenger, and Derek J. Penslar, Shylock's Children: Economics and Jewish Identity in Modern Europe (Berkeley, 2001), chap. 4.
103. On Feder's economic views see Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1984), 189-90.
104. John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York, 1920), quoted in Robert Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, vol. 2, The Economist as Saviour, 1920-1937 (London, 1992), 234.
105. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, 2:236.
106. Steven Beller, Vienna and the Jews: A Cultural History (Cambridge, 1989).
107. Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Chicago, 1944), 139-40.
108. Friedrich A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Chicago, 1960), 81.
109. Friedrich A. Hayek, "Competition as a Discovery Procedure," (1968), reprinted in The Essence of Hayek, ed. Chiaki Nishiyama and Kurt R. Leube (Stanford, Calif., 1984), 263.
110. See Andrei S. Markovits, Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America (Princeton, N.J., 2007), chap. 5.
111. Osama bin Laden, "Letter to America" circulated on the Internet in November 2002;
112. "Declaration of Jihad," August 23, 1996; and tape of February 11, 2003.
113. Milton Friedman, "Capitalism and the Jews," Encounter, June 1984, 74.
114. The origin of the piece as an address to the Mont Pèlerin Society in 1972 is noted in the version published in Walter Block et al., The Morality of the Market (Toronto, 1985), 401.
115. The piece is republished in The Essence of Friedman, ed. Kurt R. Luebe (Stanford, Calif., 1987).
116. See Paul Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, eds., The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History, 2nd ed. (New York, 1995), table 1, p. 702.
117. For recent literature, see Eli Lederhendler, "Classless: On the Social Status of Jews in Russia and Eastern Europe in the Late Nineteenth Century," Comparative Studies in Social and History 50, no. 2 (2008), 509-34, esp. 513.
118. Uriah Zevi Engelman, "Sources of Jewish Statistics," in Finkelstein, The Jews, 2:1520-28;
119. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, Jew in Modern World, 702
120. Sergio Dellapergola, "Demography," in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, ed. Martin Goodman, Jeremy Cohen, and David Sorkin (New York, 2002), 814.
121. Ezra Mendelsohn, Class Struggle in the Pale (Cambridge, 1970), 1-2.
122. Yoav Peled and Gershon Shafir, "From Caste to Exclusion: The Dynamics of Modernization in the Rus-sian Pale of Settlement," Studies in Contemporary Jewry, vol. 3 (New York, 1987), 98-114, 100.
123. Kuznets, "Economic Structure," 1627-30. For a visceral sense of how poor they were, see the remarkable memoir by Szloma Renglich, When Paupers Dance: Coming of Age in Pre-World War II Poland, trans. Zigmund Jampel (Montreal, 1988).
124. Mendelsohn, Class Struggle, 6.
125. Andrew Godley, "Cultural Determinants of Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship in the UK and USA and British and American Culture," in Cultural Factors in Economic Growth, ed. Mark Casson and Andrew Godley (Berlin, 2000), 133
126. Kuznets, "Economic Structure," 1641.
127. Arcadius Kahan, "Economic Opportunities and Some Pilgrims' Progress: Jewish Immigrants from Eastern Europe in the United States, 1890-1914," in Kahan, Essays in Jewish Social and Economic History (Chicago, 1986), 107.
128. The pattern of movement from employee to employer was already evident in the Pale of Settlement. See Mendelsohn, Class Struggle, 9. See also the exploration of the issue in Daniel Soyer, "Class Conscious Workers as Immigrant Entrepreneurs: The Ambiguity of Class among Eastern European Jewish Immigrants to the United States at the Turn of the Twentieth Century," Labor History 42, no. 1 (2001), 45-59.
129. Kahan, "Economic Opportunites," 109;
130. Kahan, "Jewish Life in the United States: Perspectives from Economics," in Kahan, Essays, 129
131. Lederhendler, "Classless," 521-22.
132. Hasia R. Diner, A Time for Gathering: The Second Migration, 1820-1880 (Baltimore, 1992), 66-73.
133. This insight stems from an as yet unpublished paper by Andrew Godley, "Jewish Entrepreneurship in America and the English Speaking World, 1880-1980," delivered at the conference "Jews and American Business," Temple University, October 19, 2004.
134. See also Andrew Godley, Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship in New York and London, 1880-1914 (Basingstoke, 2001).
135. Jonathan Karp, "Economic History and Jewish Modernity-Ideological versus Structural Change," Simon Dubnow Institute Yearbook 6 (2007), 263.
136. Jerry Z. Muller, The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Modern European Thought (New York, 2002), 10-13;
137. Baron, History of the Jews, 4:150-56, 170-74, 223ff;
138. most recently, Michael Toch, "The Jews in Europe, 500-1050," in The New Cambridge Medieval History, ed. P. Fouracre, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 2005), 547-70, 872-78.
139. A useful collection of articles on Jewish economic history is Nachum Gross, ed., Yehudim Bekalkala [Jews in Economic Life] (Jerusalem, 1985; Hebrew with English summaries).
140. Key debates on the Jews in the medieval economy are reviewed and analyzed in Julie Lee Mell, "Religion and Economy in Pre-modern Europe: The Medieval Commercial Revolution and the Jews," Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 2007.
141. David Novak, "Judaism and a Just Economy: The Question of Interest," unpublished paper, 1993, and David Novak, "Economics and Justice: A Jewish Example," in his Jewish Social Ethics (New York, 1992).
142. Novak's focus is on normative texts, which should not be mistaken for historical reality. See the useful strictures by Baron and Kahan in their article "Economic History," 1292.
143. Jacob Katz, "Economic Intercourse and the Religious Factor," in his Exclusiveness and Tolerance: Jewish-Gentile Relations in Medieval and Modern Times (New York, 1962).
144. Derek J. Penslar, Shylock's Children: Economics and Jewish Identity in Modern Europe (Berkeley, 2001), 52-53.
145. Babylonian Talmud Nedarim, 7b
146. Baba Batra, p116a
147. Exodus Rabbah 31:14, cited in Jonathan Sacks, The Dignity of Difference (London, 2002), 98.
148. Genesis Rabbah 9:7. See Jeremy Cohen, "Original Sin as the Evil Inclination-a Polemicist's Appreciation of Human Nature," Harvard Theological Review 73 (1980), 495-520, which lists the literature on original sin and on yetzer hara.
149. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot 58a.
150. Michael Novak, This Hemisphere of Liberty (Washington, D.C., 1992), 64.
151. Penslar, Shylock's Children, 55; Baron, History of the Jews, 4:223ff.
152. On medieval Jewish attitudes toward commerce see the wide-ranging article by Salo Baron, "The Economic Views of Maimonides," in Ancient and Medieval Jewish History: Essays by Salo Wittmayer Baron, ed. Leon A. Feldman (New Brunswick, N.J., 1972), which draws out the comparison with Christianity on p. 174.
153. Victor Karady, The Jews of Europe in the Modern Era: A Social-Historical Outline, trans. Tim Wilkinson (Budapest, 2004), 49-52. See too Kuznets, "Economic Structure," 1607-9. Similarly, Karp, "Economic History," 249-50.
154. Karady, Jews of Europe, 57-59.
155. Karady, Jews of Europe, 62-64.
156. Kuznets, "Economic Structure," 1609; Karady, Jews of Europe, 76.
157. On time horizons see Sowell, "Are Jews Generic?" 98-99.
158. This paragraph owes much to Derek Penslar and Jonathan Karp.
159. Gerald Krefetz, Jews and Money: The Myths and the Reality (New Haven, 1982), 12.
160. See especially Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight against White Slavery, 1870-1939 (New York, 1983)
161. Robert J. Kelly, Ko-lin Chin, and Rufus Schatzberg, eds., Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States (New York, 1994), 295.
162. Mark A. Haller, "The Changing Structure of American Gambling in the Twentieth Century," Journal of Social Issues 35, no. 3 (1979), 87-114;
163. Henry L. Feingold, A Time for Searching: Entering the Mainstream, vol. 4 of The Jewish People in America (Baltimore, 1992), 49ff.
164. "It is a general sociological rule that all minority groups are held collectively responsible for the actions of their individual members. The measure of this collective responsibility varies with the extent to which the minority is distinguishable in appearance, and with the degree of its group-isolation" (Katz, Exclusiveness and Tolerance, 158).
165. Karady, Jews of Europe, 65.
166. Jonathan Israel, introduction to Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World Maritime Empires (Leiden, 2002), 5.
167. On trust and Jewish networks, see also Francesca Trivellato, "Sephardic Merchants in the Early Modern Atlantic and Beyond: Toward a Comparative Historical Approach to Business Cooperation," in Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500-1800, ed. Richard Kagan and Philip D. Morgan (Baltimore, 2008), 99-120.
168. Kahan, "Jewish Life," 137-38; see also Marion A. Kaplan, The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany (New York, 1991), 42ff;
169. Shulamit Volkov, Germans, Jews, and Antisemites: Trials in Emancipation (Cambridge, 2006), 210-23.
170. Kahan, "Economic Opportunities," 113.
171. Paula Hyman, Gender and Assimilation in Modern Jewish History (Seattle, 1995), 102-6.
172. The topic is well treated in Carmel U. Chiswick, "The Economics of American Judaism," in The Cambridge Companion to American Judaism, ed. Dana Evan Kaplan (Cambridge, 2005), 315-25.
173. W. D. Rubinstein, "Entrepreneurial Minorities: A Typology," 111-24, in Casson and Godley, Cultural Factors; see also Todd M. Endelman, The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000 (Berkeley, 2002), 257ff.
174. Diner, A Time for Gathering, chap. 3.
175. Eli Lederhendler, "America," in YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, ed. Gershon David Hundert, 2 vols. (New Haven, 2008).
176. Karady, Jews of Europe, 80
177. similarly W. D. Rubinstein, "Jews in the Economic Elites of Western Nations and Antisemitism," Jewish Journal of Sociology 10, nos. 1-2 (2000), 5-35.
178. Karady, Jews of Europe, 76-77.
179. I have adapted this notion from Martin Malia, Russia under Western Eyes (Cambridge, Mass., 1999).
180. For useful and informed comparisons of the prerevolutionary history of Russian Jewry, see Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley, 2002), 367-81.
181. Slezkine, The Jewish Century, a remarkable amalgam of fact, insight, style, and speculation-both founded and unfounded, 118-23.
182. Volkov, Germans, Jews, and Antisemites, 175.
183. On the Rothschilds, see the two-volume work by Niall Ferguson, The Rothschilds (New York, 1998);
184. on Bleich röder, see Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron (New York, 1977)
185. on Oppenheim, see Michael Stürmer et al, Wägen und Wagen. Sal. Oppenheim jr. & Cie. Geschichte einer Bank und einer Familie (Munich, 1994).
186. Encyclopedia Judaica, "Banking." See also Krefetz, Jews and Money, chap. 4.
187. Karady, Jews of Europe, 78-80.
188. Volkov, Germans, Jews, and Antisemites, 208.
189. Werner Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite, 1820-1935 (Oxford, 1987), cited in Rubinstein, "Jews in Economic Elites," 9-10.
190. Rubinstein, "Jews in Economic Elites," 6, 9.
191. Karady, Jews of Europe, 101.
192. Karady, Jews of Europe, 93.
193. See the chart on Krefetz, Jews and Money, 15.
194. Edward S. Shapiro, A Time for Healing: American Jewry since World War II (Baltimore, 1992), 118-20.
195. Shapiro, A Time for Healing, 114-16.
196. Shapiro, A Time for Healing, 100-101.
197. Kuznets, "Economic Structure," 1659.
198. Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics, 17.
199. For a sense of the limits on social and economic mobility created by the educational system of such communities, see Hella Winston, Unchosen: The Hidden Life of Hasidic Rebels (Boston, 2006).
200. Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics, 35.
201. See for example, Jacob Toury, Die politische Orientierung der Juden in Deutschland (Tübingen, 1966)
202. Martin Liepach, Das Wahlverhalten der jüdischen Bevölkerung in der Weimarer Republik (Tübingen, 1996).
203. On the influence of Russian origins on American Jewish socialism see Ezra Mendelsohn, "The Russian Roots of the American Jewish Labor Movement," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science 16 (1976), 150-201;
204. on France see Paula Hyman, From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906-1939 (New York, 1979), chaps. 3-5;
205. on England, William J. Fishman, East End Jewish Radicals (London, 1975).
206. Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics, 93-103.
207. Jonathan Karp, "Economic History," 255, and Jonathan Karp, The Politics of Jewish Commerce: Economic Thought and Emancipation in Europe, 1638-1848 (Cambridge, 2008), 21-37.
208. Karp, Politics of Jewish Commerce, 22.
209. Menasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, ed. Lucien Wolf (London, 1901), excerpted in Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, Jew in Modern World, 10-13. On the context see Karp, Politics of Jewish Commerce, 32-37.
210. Moses Mendelssohn, "Response to Dohm (1782)," in Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, Jew in Modern World, 44-47. The original German is in Moses Mendelssohn, Schriften zum Judentum, II, vol. 8, ed. Alexander Altmann (Stuttgartt, 1971), 3-25. On the larger context, see Karp, Politics of Jewish Commerce, 113-34.
211. See Adam Sutcliffe, "Can a Jew Be a Philosophe? Isaac de Pinto, Voltaire, and Jewish Participation in the European Enlightenment," Jewish Social Studies 6, no. 3 (2000), 31-51, and Richard Popkin, "Hume and Isaac de Pinto," Texas Studies in Literature 12 (1970-71), 417-39;
212. Popkin, "Hume and Isaac de Pinto II,' in Hume and the Enlightenment, ed. William B. Todd (Edinburgh, 1974), 99-127
213. I.J.A. Nijenhuis, "Isaac de Pinto und die Nützlichkeit von Handel und Kredit," in Vademecum zu einem niederländischen Pionier des Denkens über die Staatsverschuldung, ed. Arnold Heertje (Düsseldorf, 2000), 31-53.
214. Karp, Politics of Jewish Commerce, 202-7; and Penslar, Shylock's Children, 68-84.
215. Penslar, Shylock's Children, 144-47.
216. See the astute observations of Ernest Gellner, Language and Solitude: Wittgenstein, Malinowski, and the Habsburg Dilemma (Cambridge, 1998), part 1.
217. See Muller, Mind and Market, chap. 7, "Karl Marx: From Jewish Usury to Universal Vampirism."
218. Nicolas Berg, Luftmenschen: Zur Geschichte einer Metapher (Göttingen, 2008), 90-91.
219. Quoted in Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York, 1994), 81.
220. Penslar, Shylock's Children 208-9; and Berg, Luftmenschen, 87ff.
221. Penslar, Shylock's Children 208-9.
222. Berg, Luftmenschen, 87.
223. On Gordon and Borochov see Borochov, "Our Platform" (1906) in Hertzberg, The Zionist Idea, 365; Gordon, "People and Labor" (1911), in Hertzberg, The Zionist Idea, 372-74;
224. the useful discussion of each thinker in Gideon Shimoni, The Zionist Ideology (Hanover, 1995), 179-89, 208-16; and also Berg, Luftmenschen, 93ff.
225. For a detailed reconstruction of Borochov's political and intellectual development, see Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862-1917 (Cambridge, 1984), chap. 7. For more on Borochov's analysis see chapter 4 of this volume, "The Economics of Nationalism and the Fate of the Jews in Twentieth-Century Europe."
226. Hasia Diner, A New Promised Land: A History of Jews in America (New York, 2003), 54.
227. Penslar, Shylock's Children, 246, and Jonathan L. Dekel-Chen, Farming the Red Land: Jewish Agricultural Colonization and Local Soviet Power, 1924-1941 (New Haven, 2005).
228. Shimoni, The Zionist Ideology, 308.
229. Shimoni, The Zionist Ideology, 252-56
230. Derek J. Penslar, "Is Israel a Jewish State?" in his Israel in History: The Jewish State in Comparative Perspective (London, 2007), 78.
231. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism , 107-8.
232. Penslar, "Is Israel a Jewish State?" 79-80.
233. Kuznets, "Economic Structure," 1650-51.
234. Penslar, "Is Israel a Jewish State?" 78.
235. Serge Schmemann, "Israel Redefines Its Dream, Finding Wealth in High Tech," New York Times, April 18, 1998.
236. Penslar, "Is Israel a Jewish State?" 78; and Penslar, Shylock's Children, 258-59.
237. Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, Jews and the New American Scene (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 160.
238. Friedman, "Capitalism and the Jews," 79.
239. See Muller, Mind and Market, chaps. 11 and 13.
240. See on this theme Chua, World on Fire; and Penslar, Shylock's Children, 134; and Slezkine, The Jewish Century.
241. Sowell, "Are Jews Generic?" 76-77.
242. On Jews in German philanthropy see Werner Mosse, The German-Jewish Economic Elite, 1820-1935: A Sociocultural Profi le (London, 1989), chap. 10.
243. I wish to thank Ferenc Katona for his assistance in research in Hungarian sources for this essay. On Jews and Communism, I have drawn on R. V. Burks, The Dynamics of Communism in Eastern Europe (Princeton, 1961);
244. François Fejtö, Les Juifs et l'Antisemitisme dans les Pays Coummunistes (Paris, 1960)
245. Paul Lendvai, Anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe (London, 1971);
246. Branko Lazitch, Biographical Dictionary of the Comintern, rev. ed. (Stanford, Calif., 1986);
247. Walter Z. Laqueur, "Revolutionism and the Jews," Commentary, February 1971;
248. Jacob L. Talmon, "Jews between Revolution and Counter-Revolution," in his Israel among the Nations (London, 1970)
249. "Jews and Revolution" (in Hebrew) in Talmon, Beedan Ha-alimut (Tel Aviv, 1975);
250. Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe between the Wars (Bloomington, 1983);
251. Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics, chap. 4;
252. Robert Wistrich, Revolutionary Jews from Marx to Trotsky (London, 1976)
253. Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews: The Dilemmas of Assimilation in Germany and Austria-Hungary (Rutherford, N.J., 1982). There is an excellent collection of recent scholarship, Dan Diner and Jonathan Frankel, eds., Dark Times, Dire Decisions: Jews and Communism (New York, 2004).
254. On Egypt, see Walter Laqueur's portrait of Henri Curiel in Dying for Jerusalem (Naperville, Ill., 2006);
255. on Joe Slovo, and Rusty and Hilda Bernstein of South Africa see Glenn Frankel, Rivonia's Children: Three Families and the Cost of Conscience in White South Africa (New York, 1999).
256. See Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics, 98-100, and Slezkine, The Jewish Century, 152-53. Slezkine's book is reliable and incisive in dealing with the assimilated Russian-speaking Jews of the Soviet Union, but becomes ever less reliable when it deals with the remainder of the Jews of the Soviet Union, the United States, and the land of Israel.
257. On Russia and Ukraine see Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine (New Haven, 1963)
258. Robert Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror Famine (New York, 1986)
259. Otto Heller, Der Untergang des Judentums, 2nd ed. (Berlin, 1933), esp. 230-35;
260. Taras Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1977)
261. Stuart Kahan, The Wolf of the Kremlin (New York, 1987)
262. Joseph Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews (Philadelphia, 1972)
263. Hans Rogger, Jewish Policies and Right-Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (Berkeley, 1986)
264. Leonard B. Schapiro, "The Role of the Jews in the Russian Revolutionary Movement," in his Russian Studies (New York, 1987)
265. Zvi Y. Gitelman, A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present, 2nd ed. (Bloomington, 2001).
266. On Jewish social, economic, and educational mobility in the early Soviet period see Slezkine, The Jewish Century, 216ff.
267. Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein, Jüdischer Bolshewismus: Mythos und Realität (Schellroda, 2003), chap. 5. Despite its tendentious suggestion that Jews as a whole are as guilty of Communism as Germans are of Nazism, this work contains a wealth of information. Slezkine too notes that "foreign service was an almost exclusively Jewish specialty" (The Jewish Century, 255). See too Annie Kriegel and Stephane Courtois, Eugen Fried: Le grand secret du PCF (Paris, 1997).
268. Gitelman, A Century of Ambivalence, 112.
269. Slezkine, The Jewish Century, 275.
270. Slezkine, The Jewish Century, 301ff.
271. On German Jews and their politics see Toury, Die politischen Orientierung der Juden; Donald L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Bloomington, 1980).
272. See Niewyk, Jews in Weimar Germany, and Werner Agnress, "Juden im politischen Leben der Revolutionszeit," in Deutsches Judentum im Krieg und Revolution, 1916-1923, ed. Werner Mosse (Tübingen, 1971).
273. See Rudolf Tokes, Bela Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic (New York, 1967);
274. Frank Eckelt, "The Internal Policies of the Hungarian Soviet Republic," in Hungary in Revolution, 1918-19, ed. Ivan Volgyes (Lincoln, Nebr., 1971);
275. William O. McCagg, "Jews in Revolutions: The Hungarian Experience," Journal of Social History 28 (1972), 78-105.
276. See the bills reproduced and analyzed in Liliane Weissberg, "Antisemitische Motive und Texte auf dem Notgeld der 20er Jahre," in Abgestempelt. Judenfeindliche Postkarten. auf der Grundlage der Sammlung Wolfgang Haney, ed. Helmut Gold und Georg Heuberger (Frankfurt am Main, 1999).
277. Feingold, A Time for Searching, 6-8, 223-24;
278. Dinnerstein, Anti-Semitism in America, 79-80, 95-96.
279. See also Joseph W. Bendersky, The Jewish Threat: Anti-Semitic Politics in the U.S. Army (New York, 2000).
280. See Mendelsohn, Jews of East Central Europe; on Poland see also Jaff Schatz, The Generation: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Communists of Poland (Berkeley, 1991).
281. On Romania, Stephen Fischer-Galati, "Fascism, Communism and the Jewish Question in Romania," in Jews and Non-Jews in Eastern Europe, 1918-1945, ed. Bela Vago and George Mosse (Jerusalem, 1974);
282. Vladimir Tismaneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Berkeley, 2003).
283. For figures on Romania, Robert Levy, Anna Pauker: The Rise and Fall of a Jewish Communist (Berkeley, 2001), 5.
284. Dan Diner and Jonathan Frankel, "Introduction-Jews and Communism: The Utopian Temptation," in Diner and Frankel, Dark Times, Dire Decisions, 8.
285. On Poland, see Schatz, The Generation; and Josef Banas, The Scapegoats: The Exodus of the Remnants of Polish Jewry (New York, 1979)
286. Michael Borwicz, "Polish-Jewish Relations, 1944-1947," in The Jews in Poland, ed. Chimen Abramsky et al. (Oxford, 1986)
287. Michael Chechinski, Poland: Communism, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism (New York, 1982)
288. Marx Hillel, Le massacre des survivants en Pologne 1945-1947 (Paris, 1985)
289. Teresa Toranska, "Them": Stalin's Polish Puppets (New York, 1987)
290. on Romania, Ghita Ionescu, Communism in Rumania, 1944-1962 (London, 1964)
291. Tismaneanu, Stalinism for all Seasons; and, most up to date, Levy, Anna Pauker. On Czechoslovakia, The American Jewish Committee, "The Anti-Semitic Nature of the Czechoslovak Trial (New.-Dec. 1952)," mimeographed (New York, 1952).
292. On Hungary, George Garai, "Rakosi and the 'Anti-Zionist' Campaign of 1952-53," Soviet Jewish Affairs 12, no. 2 (1982), 19-36;
293. Charles Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc (Durham, N.C., 1986), chap. 4;
294. Victor Karady, "Post-Holocaust Hungarian Jewry, 1945-1948," in Studies in Contemporary Jewry, vol. 3 (New York, 1987).
295. See, for example, Levy, Anna Pauker, on this issue.
296. Levy, Anna Pauker, 129.
297. Levy, Anna Pauker, 173-76.
298. On the Jews in the East German Communist regime see Karin Hartewig, Zurückgekehrt: Die Geschichte der jüdischen Kommunisten in der DDR (Cologne, 2000), and the useful review article by Peter Monteath, "The German Democratic Republic and the Jews," German History 22, no. 3 (2004), 448-68; also Paul O'Doherty, "The GDR in the Context of Stalinist Show Trials and Anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe 1948-54," German History 10, no. 3 (1992), 302-17.
299. My translation.
300. On the ancient Jewish origins of nationalism (along with its distinction from more modern conceptions), see the excellent discussion in Aviel Roshwald, The Endurance of Nationalism (Cambridge, 2006), 14-22. Salo Wittmayer Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion (New York, 1947), chap. 7, contains a still valuable exploration of nation and religion in Jewish history.
301. See for example, Tony Judt, "Israel: An Alternative," New York Review of Books, October 23, 2003; see also the cogent rejoinders by Omer Bartov and Michael Walzer in New York Review of Books, December 4, 2003, and by Leon Wieseltier, "Israel, Palestine, and The Return of the Binational Fantasy: What Is Not to Be Done," New Republic, October 18, 2003; and by Ron Halévi, "Israel and the Question of the Nation State," Policy Review, April-May, 2004 (translated from the French journal Le Debat by Robert Howse). For a broader critique, see Jerry Z. Muller, "Us and Them: The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism," Foreign Affairs, March-April 2008, 18-35.
302. For a good summary and partial critique of this propensity, see Roshwald, The Endurance of Nationalism, 8 and passim.
303. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Refl ections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, 2nd ed. (London, 1991). Anderson's own view is quite different, emphasizing the role of capitalism in the creation of new means of communication that make possible new forms of identity. But that is another matter.
304. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York, 1942), 15n.
305. Dov Ber Borochov, "The National Question and the Class Struggle," (1905) in Dov Ber Borochov, Class Struggle and the Jewish Nation: Selected Essays in Marxist Zionism, ed. Mitchell Cohen (New Brunswick, N.J., 1984), 83.
306. Mitchell Cohen, "Introduction: Ber Borochov and Socialist Zionism," in Class Struggle, 13. Cohen's essay is a useful introduction to Borochov's life and thought; also particularly good is Avineri, Making of Modern Zionism, chap. 13. For a detailed reconstruction of Borochov's political and intellectual development, see Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, chap. 7.
307. Borochov, "National Question," 52.
308. Borochov, "National Question," 55.
309. Borochov, "National Question," 57.
310. Borochov, "National Question," 59.
311. Borochov, "National Question," 61, 73.
312. Borochov, "National Question," 68.
313. Borochov, "National Question," 69.
314. Borochov, "Our Platform" (1906) in Class Struggle and the Jewish Nation, 7.
315. Borochov, "Our Platform," 79-80.
316. A notable exception is Yuri Slezkine's The Jewish Century, a work that owes rather more to Gellner than it explicitly acknowledges.
317. For his critique of Marxism, see especially "Nationalism and Marxism," in Gellner, Encounters with Nationalism.
318. Gellner uses the term industrial society or industrialization "in a broader sense which includes the earlier commercialization of society, which only becomes 'industrial' in a narrower sense (power machinery, large-scale production) later, thereby however allowing the social changes already initiated by commercialism to be preserved, extended and to become entrenched" ("Reply to Critics," 636).
319. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 10.
320. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 11ff.
321. Michael Lessnoff, Ernest Gellner and Modernity (Cardiff, 2002), 33.
322. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 27.
323. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 34.
324. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 18.
325. Gellner, "Reply to Critics," 626.
326. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 62.
327. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 14.
328. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 22-23.
329. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 63-87.
330. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 2. For a recent empirical exemplifi cation of the processes described by Gellner (though the author fails to recognize this) see Jeremy King, Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 (Princeton, N.J., 2002).
331. Lessnoff, Ernest Gellner and Modernity, 35. The element of national defi nition through exclusion is the focus of Anthony W. Marx, Faith in Nation: Exclusionary Origins of Nationalism (New York, 2003). There is a concise discussion in Daniel Chirot, "The Retribalization of the Modern World: How the Revival of Ancient Sentiments Leads to Persisting Nationalist and Ethnic Confl icts," Ab Imperio 3 (2008), 1-23.
332. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 99.
333. Lessnoff's discussion omits Gellner's exploration of this variety of nationalism.
334. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 104-5.
335. Gellner, 91. For previous analyses along these lines, see the discussion of Georg Simmel and Friedrich Hayek in chapter 1 of this volume.
336. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 105-6.
337. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 106-8.
338. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 108.
339. Max Horkheimer, Über die deutschen Juden (Cologne, 1961), quoted in Dan Diner, Beyond the Conceivable (Berkeley, 2000), 201. The essay is reprinted in Max Horkheimer, Gesammelte Schriften, vol. 8 (Frankfurt am Main, 1985).