The roles of the amygdala in the affective regulation of body, brain, and behaviour

Connection Science

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 215-245

  Mirolli, Marco ^a   Mannella, Francesco ^a   Baldassarre, Gianluca ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF COGNITIVE SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFFECTIVE RESPONSE; BRAIN STATE; COGNITIVE PROCESS; CURRENT MODELS; GOAL-DIRECTED; INTERNAL STATE; METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH; NEUROMODULATORS;

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY;

BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH;

EID: 77954930761     PISSN: 09540091     EISSN: 13600494     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09540091003682553     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Ahn, S., and Phillips, A.G. (2002), 'Modulation by Central and Basolateral Amygdalar Nuclei of Dopaminergic Correlates of Feeding to Satiety in the Rat Nucleus Accumbens and Medial Prefrontal Cortex', The Journal of Neuroscience, 22(24), 10958-10965.
2. Alvarez, P., and Squire, L.R. (1994), 'Memory Consolidation and the Medial Temporal Lobe:A Simple Network Model', Proceeding of the National Academy Science of the USA, 91(15), 7041-7045.
3. Arbib, M., and Fellous, J. (2004), 'Emotions: From Brain to Robot', Trends in Cognitive Science, 8(12), 554-561.
4. Arias, C., and Chotro, M.G. (2007), 'Amniotic fluid can act as an appetitive unconditioned stimulus in preweanling rats', Developmental Psychobiology, 49(2), 139-149.
5. Aston Jones, G., and Cohen, J.D. (2005), 'An Integrative Theory of Locus Coeruleus-Norepinephrine Function: Adaptive Gain and Optimal Performance', Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 403-450.
6. Avila-Garcia, O., and Canamero, L.(2004), 'Using Hormonal Feedback to Modulate Action Selection in a Competitive Scenario, in From Animals To Animats 8: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Simulation of Adaptive Behavior, eds. S. Schaal, A. Ijspeert, A. Billard, S. Vijayakumar, J. Hallam, and J.-A. Meyer, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 243-252.
7. Balkenius, C. (1993), 'The roots of Motivations', in From Animals to Animats II: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior, eds. J.-A. Mayer, H.L. Roitblat, and S.W.Wilson, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
8. Balkenius, C., and Morén, J. (1999), 'Dynamics of a classical conditioning model', Autonomous Robots, 7(1), 41-56.
9. Balleine, B.W., and Dickinson, A. (1998), 'Goal-Directed Instrumental Action: Contingency and Incentive Learning and their Cortical Substrates', Neuropharmacology, 37(4-5), 407-419.
10. Balleine, B.W., and Killcross, S. (2006), 'Parallel Incentive Processing: An Integrated View of Amygdala Function', Trends in Neurosciences, 29(5), 272-279.
11. Balleine, B.W., Killcross, S.A., and Dickinson, A. (2003), 'The Effect of Lesions of the Basolateral Amygdala on Instrumental Conditioning', Journal of Neuroscience, 23(2), 666-675.
12. Bandler, R., Keay, K.A., Floyd, N., and Price, J. (2000), 'Central Circuits Mediating Patterned Autonomic Activity During Active vs. Passive Emotional Coping', Brain Research Bulletin, 53(1), 95-104.
13. Bar-Gad, I., Morris, G., and Bergman, H. (2003), 'Information Processing, Dimensionality Reduction and Reinforcement Learning In The Basal Ganglia', Progress in Neurobiology, 71(6), 439-473.
14. Barnes, N.M., and Sharp, T. (1999), 'A review of central 5-HT receptors and their function', Neuropharmacology, 38(8), 1083-1152.
15. Barto, A. (1995), 'Adaptive Critics and the Basal Ganglia', in Models of Information Processing in the Basal Ganglia, eds. J. Houk, J.C. Davis, and D. Beiser, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 215-232.
16. Baxter, M.G., and Murray, E.A. (2002), 'The Amygdala and Reward', Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(7), 563-573.
17. Bechara, A., Damasio, A.R., Damasio, H., and Anderson, S.W. (1994), 'Insensitivity to Future Consequences Following Damage to Human Prefrontal Cortex. Cognition, 50(1-3), 7-15.
18. Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., and Damasio, A.R. (1996), 'Failure to RespondAutonomically to Anticipated Future Outcomes Following Damage to Prefrontal Cortex', Cereb Cortex, 6(2), 215-225.
19. Berridge, K.C. (2007), 'The Debate Over Dopamine'S Role in Reward: The Case for Incentive Salience', Psychopharmacology, 191(3), 391-431.
20. Berridge, C.W., and Waterhouse, B.D. (2003), 'The Locus Coeruleus-Noradrenergic System: Modulation of Behavioral State and State-Dependent Cognitive Processes', Brain Research Brain Research Review, 42(1), 33-84.
21. Blair, H.T., Sotres-Bayon, F., Moita, M.A.P., and LeDoux, J.E. (2005), 'The Lateral Amygdala Processes the Value of Conditioned and Unconditioned Aversive Stimuli', Neuroscience, 133(2), 561-569.
22. Cador, M., Robbins, T.W., and Everitt, B.J. (1989), 'Involvement of the Amygdala in Stimulus-Reward Associations: InteractionWith The Ventral Striatum', Neuroscience, 30(1), 77-86.
23. Canamero, L. (1997), 'Modeling Motivations and Emotions as a Basis for Intelligent Behavior' in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Autonomous Agents, eds.W. Lewis Johnson, NewYork: The ACM Press, pp. 148-155.
24. Canamero, L. (2005), 'Emotion Understanding from the Perspective of Autonomous Robots Research', Neural Networks, 18, 445-455.
25. Cardinal, R.N., Parkinson, J.A., Hall, J., and Everitt, B.J. (2002), 'Emotion and Motivation: The Role of the Amygdala, Ventral Striatum, and Prefrontal Cortex', Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 26(3), 321-352.
26. Cardinal, R.N., Parkinson, J.A., Marbini, H.D., Toner, A.J., Bussey, T.J., Robbins, T.W., and Everitt, B.J. (2003) 'Role of the anterior cingulate cortex in the control over behavior by Pavlovian conditioned stimuli in rats', Behavioural Neuroscience, 117(3), 566-587.
27. Cecconi, F., and Parisi, D. (1993), 'Neural Networks with Motivational Units', in From Animals to Animats 2: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior, eds. J. Meyer, H. Roitblat, and S.Wilson, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press pp. 346-355.
28. Chen, J., Nakamura, M., Kawamura, T., Takahashi, T., and Nakahara, D. (2006), 'Roles of Pedunculopontine Tegmental Cholinergic Receptors in Brain Stimulation Reward in the Rat', Psychopharmacology (Berl), 184(3-4), 514-522.
29. Corbit, L.H., and Balleine, B.W. (2003), 'The Role of Prelimbic Cortex in Instrumental Conditioning', Behavioral Brain Research, 146(1-2), 145-157.
30. Corbit, L.H., Muir, J.L., and Balleine, B.W. (2001), 'The Role of the Nucleus Accumbens in Instrumental Conditioning: Evidence of a Functional Dissociation Between Accumbens Core and Shell', The Journal of Neuroscience, 21(9), 3251-3260.
31. Dagher, A., Owen, A.M., Boecker, H., and Brooks, D.J. (2001), 'The Role of the Striatum and Hippocampus in Planning: A PET Activation Study in Parkinson's Disease', Brain, 124(Pt 5), 1020-1032.
32. Davis, M., and Whalen, P.J. (2001), 'The Amygdala: Vigilance and Emotion', Molecular Psychiatry, 6(1), 13-34.
33. Dayan, P. (2002), 'Motivated reinforcement learning', in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems eds. T. Dietterich, S. Becker, and Z. Ghahramani, (Vol. 14), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
34. Dayan, P., and Balleine, B. (2002), 'Reward, Motivation and Reinforcement Learning', Neuron, 36, 285-298.
35. De Olmos, J.S., Beltramino, C.A., and Alheid, G.F. (2004), 'Amygdala and Extended Amygdala', in The Rat Nervous System (3rd ed.), ed. G. Paxinos, London: Elsevier Academic Press.
36. Domjan, M. (2006), Principles of Learning and Behaviour, Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth.
37. Eschenko, O., Ramadan, W., Mlle, M., Born, J. and Sara, S.J. (2008), 'Sustained Increase in Hippocampal Sharp-Wave Ripple Activity During Slow-Wave Sleep After Learning', Learning and Memorup, 15(4), 222-228.
38. Floresco, S.B. (2007), 'Dopaminergic Regulation of Limbic-Striatal Interplay', Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 32(6), 400-411.
39. Fudge, J.L., and Emiliano, A.B. (2003), 'The Extended Amygdala and the Dopamine System: Another Piece of the Dopamine Puzzle', The Journal of Neuropsychiatry Clinical Neuroscience, 15(3), 306-316.
40. Fudge, J.L., and Haber, S.N. (2000), 'The central nucleus of the amygdala projection to dopamine subpopulations in primates', Neuroscience, 97(3), 479-494.
41. Grahn, R.E., Maswood, S., McQueen, M.B., Watkins, L.R., and Maier, S.F. (1999), 'Opioid-Dependent Effects of Inescapable Shock on Escape Behavior and Conditioned Fear Responding are Mediated by the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus', Behavioral Brain Research, 99(2), 153-167.
42. Haber, S.N. (2003), 'The Primate Basal Ganglia: Parallel and Integrative Networks', Journal Chemical Neuroanatomy, 26(4), 317-330.
43. Han, J.S., McMahan, R.W., Holland, P., and Gallagher, M. (1997), "The Role of an Amygdalo-Nigrostriatal Pathway in Associative Learning", The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(10), 3913-3919.
44. Hatfield, T., Han, J.S., Conley, M., Gallagher, M., and Holland, P. (1996), 'Neurotoxic Lesions of Basolateral, But Not Central, Amygdala Interfere with Pavlovian Second-Order Conditioning and Reinforcer Devaluation Effects', The Journal of Neuroscience 16(16), 5256-5265.
45. Hiroi, N., and White, N.M. (1991), 'The Lateral Nucleus of the Amygdala Mediates Expression of the Amphetamine-Produced Conditioned Place Preference', The Journal of Neuroscience, 11(7), 2107-2116.
46. Hommel, B. (2005), 'Perception in Action: Multiple Roles of Sensory Information in Action Control', Cognitive Processing, 6, 3-14.
47. Hull, C.L. (1943), Principles of behavior, NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
48. Iversen, S., Iversen, L., and Saper, C.B. (2000), 'The Autonomic Nervous System and the Hypothalamus', in Principles of Neural Sciences (4th ed.), eds. E.R. Kandel, J.H. Schwartz, and T.M. Jessell, NewYork: McGraw Hill.
49. Jolkkonen, E., and Pitkänen, A. (1998), 'Intrinsic Connections of the Rat Amygdaloid Complex: Projections Originating in the Central Nucleus', The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 395(1), 53-72.
50. Jolkkonen, E., Miettinen, R., Pikkarainen, M., and Pitkänen, A. (2002), 'Projections from the Amygdaloid Complex to the Magnocellular Cholinergic Basal Forebrain in Rat', Neuroscience, 111(1), 133-149.
51. King, B. M. (2006), 'Amygdaloid Lesion-Induced Obesity: Relation to Sexual Behavior, Olfaction, and theVentromedial Hypothalamus', America Journal of Physiology Regulatory Integrative Comparative Physiology, 291(5), R1201-R1214.
52. Knapska, E., Radwanska, K., Werka, T., and Kaczmarek, L. (2007), 'Functional Internal Complexity of Amygdala: Focus on GeneActivity MappingAfter Behavioral Training and Drugs ofAbuse', Physiological Reviews 87(4), 1113-1173.
53. Kringelbach, M.L., and Rolls, E.T. (2004), 'The Functional Neuroanatomy of the Human Orbitofrontal Cortex: Evidence from Neuroimaging and Neuropsychology', Progress in Neurobiology 72(5), 341-372.
54. LaBar, K.S., and Cabeza, R. (2006), 'Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory', Natural Reviews Neurosciences 7(1), 54-64.
55. Lanuza, E., Nader, K., and LeDoux, J.E. (2004), 'Unconditioned Stimulus Pathways to the Amygdala: Effects of Posterior Thalamic and Cortical Lesions on Fear Conditioning', Neuroscience, 125(2), 305-315.
56. Lee, H.J., Groshek, F., Petrovich, G.D., Cantalini, J.P., Gallagher, M., and Holland, P.C. (2005), 'Role of Amygdalo-Nigral Circuitry in Conditioning of a Visual Stimulus Paired with Food', The Journal of Neuroscience 25(15), 3881-3888.
57. Lieberman, D.A. (1993), Learning, Behaviour and Cognition, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
58. Maier, S.F., and Watkins, L.R. (2005), 'Stressor Controllability and Learned Helplessness: the roles of the dorsal raphe nucleus, serotonin, and corticotropin-Releasing Factor', Neuroscience and Biobehaviorl Reviews, 29(4-5), 829-841.
59. Mannella, F., Mirolli, M., and Baldassarre, G. (2007), 'The role of amygdala in devaluation: a model tested with a simulated robot', in Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Epigenetic Robotics, eds. L. Berthouze, C.G. Prince, M. Littman, H. Kozima, and C. Balkenius, Lund: Lund University Cognitive Studies, pp. 77-84.
60. Mannella, F., Zappacosta, S., Mirolli, M., and Baldassarre, G. (2008), 'A computational model of the amygdala nuclei's role in second order conditioning', in From Amimals to Animals 10, eds. M. Asada, J. Hallam, J.-A. Meyer, and J. Tani, Volume 5040 of LNAI, Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 311-330.
61. Mannella, F., Mirolli, M., and Baldassarre, G. (in press), 'The Interplay of Pavlovian and Instrumental Processes in Devaluation Experiments: A Computational Embodied Neuroscience Model Tested with a Simulated Rat', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
62. Maren, S. (2005), 'Building and Burying Fear Memories in the Brain', Neuroscientist 11(1), 89-99.
63. McClelland, J.L., McNaughton, B.L., and O'Reilly, R.C. (1995), 'Why There are Complementary Learning Systems in the Hippocampus and Neocortex: Insights from the Successes and Failures of Connectionist Models of Learning and Memory', Psychological Review, 102(3), 419-457.
64. McDonald, A.J. (1998), 'Cortical Pathways to the Mammalian Amygdala', Progresses in Neurobiology, 55(3), 257-332.
65. McDonald, R.J., and White, N.M. (1993), 'A Triple Dissociation of Memory Systems: Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Dorsal Striatum', Behavioural Neuroscience 107(1), 3-22.
66. Miller, E.K., and Cohen, J.D. (2001), 'An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function', Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167-202.
67. th European Conference on Artificial Life, eds.W. Banzhaf, T. Christaller, P. Dittrich, J. T. Kim, and J. Ziegler, Berlin, Springer Verlag, pp. 377-386.
68. Mirolli, M., and Parisi, D. (2009a), 'Language as a Cognitive Tool', Minds and Machines, 19(4), 517-528.
69. Mirolli, M., and Parisi, D. (2009b), 'Towards a Vygotskyan Cognitive Robotics: The Role of Language as a Cognitive Tool', New Ideas in Psychology, DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2009.07.001.
70. Mobini, S., Body, S., Ho, M.-Y., Bradshaw, C.M., Szabadi, E., Deakin, J.F.W., and Anderson, I.M. (2002), 'Effects of Lesions of the Orbitofrontal Cortex on Sensitivity to Delayed and Probabilistic Reinforcement', Psychopharmacology (Berl), 160(3), 290-298.
71. Montebelli, A., Herrera, C., and Ziemke, T. (2008), 'On Cognition as Dynamical Coupling: An Analysis of Behavioral Attractor Dynamics', Adaptive Behavior, 16(2-3), 182-195.
72. Murphy, R., Lisetti, C.L., Tardif, R., Irish, L., and Gage, A. (2002), 'Emotion-Based Control of Cooperating Heterogeneous Robots', IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Autonomation, 18, 744-757.
73. Nader, K., Majidishad, P., Amorapanth, P., and LeDoux, J.E. (2001), 'Damage to the Lateral and Central, But Not Other, Amygdaloid Nuclei Prevents the Acquisition of Auditory Fear Conditioning', Learning and Memory, 8(3), 156-163.
74. Nelson, R.J., and Trainor, B.C. (2007), 'Neural mechanisms of aggression', Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(7), 536-546.
75. Niv, Y., Daw, N., Joel, D., and Dayan, P. (2006), 'Tonic dopamine: opportunity costs and the control of response vigor', Psychopharmacology (Berl) 191(3), 507-520.
76. O'Reilly, R., Frank, M., Hazy, T., andWatz, B. (2007), 'Pvlv: The Primary Value and Learned Value Pavlovian Learning Algorithm', Behavioral Neuroscience, 121, 31-49.
77. Otani, S., Daniel, H., Roisin, M.-P., and Crepel, F. (2003), 'Dopaminergic modulation of long-term synaptic plasticity in rat prefrontal neurons', Cerebral Cortex, 13(11), 1251-1256.
78. Paré, D., Quirk, G.J., and LeDoux, J.E. (2004), 'New Vistas on Amygdala Networks in Conditioned Fear', Journal of Neurophysiol, 92(1), 1-9.
79. Parisi, D. (2004), 'Internal robotics', Connection Science, 16(4), 325-338.
80. Parkinson, J.A., Robbins, T.W., and Everitt, B.J. (2000a), 'Dissociable Roles of the Central and Basolateral Amygdala in Appetitive Emotional Learning', European Journal of Neuroscience, 12(1), 405-413.
81. Parkinson, J. A., Willoughby, P.J., Robbins, T.W., and Everitt, B.J. (2000b), 'Disconnection of theAnterior Cingulate Cortex and Nucleus Accumbens Core Impairs Pavlovian Approach Behavior: Further Evidence for Limbic Cortical-Ventral Striatopallidal Systems', Behavioral Neuroscience, 114(1), 42-63.
82. Pavlov, I.P. (1927), Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex, London: Oxford University Press.
83. Petrovich, G.D., Setlow, B., Holland, P.C., and Gallagher, M. (2002), 'Amygdalo-Hypothalamic Circuit Allows Learned Cues to Override Satiety and Promote Eating', The Journal of Neuroscience, 22(19), 8748-8753.
84. Petrovich, G.D., Holland, P.C., and Gallagher, M. (2005), 'Amygdalar and Prefrontal Pathways to the Lateral Hypothalamus are Activated by a Learned Cue That Stimulates eating', The Journal of Neuroscience, 25(36), 8295-8302.
85. Peyron, C., Petit, J.M., Rampon, C., Jouvet, M., and Luppi, P.H. (1998), 'Forebrain Afferents to the Rat Dorsal Raphe Nucleus Demonstrated by Retrograde and Anterograde Tracing Methods', Neuroscience, 82(2), 443-468.
86. Pezzulo, G., Baldassarre, G., Butz, M.V., Castelfranchi, C., and Hoffmann, J. (2007), 'From Actions to Goals and Vice-Versa: Theoretical Analysis and Models of the Ideomotor Principle and Tote', in Anticipatory Behavior in Adaptive Learning Systems: From Brains to Individual and Social Behavior, eds. M.V. Butz, O. Sigaud, G. Pezzulo, and G. Baldassarre, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 73-93.
87. Pfeifer, R. (1993), 'Studying Emotions: Fungus Eaters', In Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life, pp. 916-927.
88. Phelps, E.A. (2004), 'Human Emotion and Memory: Interactions of the Amygdala and Hippocampal Complex', Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(2), 198-202.
89. Phillips, A.G., Vacca, G., and Ahn, S. (2008), 'A Top-Down Perspective on Dopamine, Motivation and Memory', Pharmacology Biochemistry, and Behaviogy, 90(2), 236-249.
90. Pickens, C.L., Saddoris, M.P., Gallagher, M., and Holland, P.C. (2005), 'Orbitofrontal Lesions Impair Use of Cue-Outcome Associations in a Devaluation Task', Behavioral Neuroscience, 119(1), 317-322.
91. Pitkänen, A., Stefanacci, L., Farb, C.R., Go, G.G., LeDoux, J.J., and Amaral, D.G. (1995), 'Intrinsic Connections of the Rat Amygdaloid Complex: Projections Originating in the Lateral Nucleus', The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 356(2), 288-310.
92. Pitkänen, A., Savander, V., and LeDoux, J.E. (1997), 'Organization of Intra-Amygdaloid Circuitries in the Rat: An Emerging Framework for Understanding Functions of the Amygdala', Trends in Neurosciences, 20(11), 517-523.
93. Pitkänen, A., Jolkkonen, E., and Kemppainen, S. (2000), 'Anatomic Heterogeneity of the Rat Amygdaloid Complex', Folia Morphologica (Warsz), 59(1), 1-23.
94. Price, J.L. (2003), 'Comparative Aspects of Amygdala Connectivity', Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 985, 50-58.
95. Redgrave, P., and Gurney, K. (2006), 'The Short-Latency Dopamine Signal: A Role in Discovering Novel Actions?', Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(12), 967-975.
96. Redgrave, P., Prescott, T., and Gurney, K. (1999), 'Is the Short Latency Dopamine Response Too Short To Signal Reward Error?', Trends in Neurosciences, 22, 146-151.
97. Richter-Levin, G. (2004), 'The Amygdala, the Hippocampus, and Emotional Modulation of Memory', Neuroscientist, 10(1), 31-39.
98. Roesch, M., and Schoenbaum, G. (2006), 'From Associations to Expectancies: Orbitofrontal Cortex as Gateway Between the Limbic System and Representational Memory', in The Orbitofrontal Cortex, eds. D. Zald and S. Rauch, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 199-236.
99. Rolls, E.T. (2000), 'Précis of the Brain and Emotion', Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(2), 177-91 (discussion 192-233).
100. Rolls, E.T., and Kesner, R.P. (2006), 'A Computational Theory of Hippocampal Function, and Empirical Tests of the Theory', Progress in Neurobiology, 79(1), 1-48.
101. Romanski, L.M., Clugnet, M.C., Bordi, F., and LeDoux, J.E. (1993), 'Somatosensory and Auditory Convergence in the Lateral Nucleus of the Amygdala', Behavioral Neuroscience, 107(3), 444-450.
102. Sah, P., Faber, E.S.L., Armentia, L.D.M., and Power, J. (2003), 'The Amygdaloid Complex: Anatomy and Physiology', Physiological Reviews, 83(3), 803-834.
103. Schoenbaum, G., Setlow, B., Saddoris, M.P., and Gallagher, M. (2003), 'Encoding Predicted Outcome and Acquired Value in Orbitofrontal Cortex During Cue Sampling Depends Upon Input from Basolateral Amygdala', Neuron, 39(5), 855-867.
104. Schoenbaum, G., Saddoris, M.P., and Stalnaker, T.A. (2007), 'Reconciling the Roles of Orbitofrontal Cortex in Reversal Learning and the Encoding of Outcome Expectancies', Annals of the NewYork Academy of Science, 1121, 320-335.
105. Schultz, W. (2002), 'Getting Formal with Dopamine and Reward', Neuron, 36, 241-263.
106. Schultz, W., and Dickinson, A. (2000), 'Neuronal Coding of Prediction Errors', Annual Reviews Neuroscience, 23, 473-500.
107. Schultz, W., Dayan, P., and Montague, P. (1997), 'ANeural Substrate of Prediction and Reward', Science, 275, 1593-1599.
108. Semba, K., and Fibiger, H.C. (1992), 'Afferent Connections of the Laterodorsal and the Pedunculopontine Tegmental Nuclei in the Rat: A Retro- and Antero-Grade Transport and Immunohistochemical Study', The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 323(3), 387-410.
109. Shi, C., and Davis, M. (1999), 'Pain Pathways Involved in Fear Conditioning Measured with Fear-Potentiated Startle: Lesion Studies', Journal of Neuroscience, 19(1), 420-430.
110. Simon, H.A. (1996), The Sciences of the Artificial (3rd ed.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
111. Skinner, B. (1938), The Behavior of Organisms, NewYork: Appleton Century Crofs.
112. Smith, K.S., and Berridge, K.C. (2005), 'The Ventral Pallidum and Hedonic Reward: Neurochemical Maps of Sucrose 'liking' and Food Intake', The Journal of roscienu, 25(38), 8637-8649.
113. Sørensen, E., Bjorvatn, B., and Ursin, R. (2000), 'Sleep-Wake Effects Following the Selective 5-ht(1a) ReceptorAntagonist P-mppi in the Freely Moving Rat', Behavioral Brain Research, 114(1-2), 31-38.
114. St Claire-Smith, R., and MacLaren, D. (1983), 'Response Preconditioning Effects', Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 41-48.
115. Surmeier, J.D., Ding, J., Day, M., Wang, Z., and Shen, W. (2007), 'D1 and D2 Dopamine-Receptor Modulation of Striatal glutamatergic Signaling in Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons', Trends in Neurosciences, 30(5), 228-235.
116. Sutton, R., and Barto, A. (1998), Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
117. Thompson, R.F., Swain, R., Clark, R., and Shinkman, P. (2000), 'Intracerebellar Conditioning - Brogden and Gantt Revisited', Behavioural Brain Research, 110(1-2), 3-11.
118. Thorndike, E.L. (1911), Animal Intelligence, Rutgers, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
119. Tindell, A.J., Smith, K.S., Peciña, S., Berridge, K.C., and Aldridge, W.J. (2006), 'Ventral Pallidum Firing Codes Hedonic Reward: When a Bad Taste Turns Good', Journal of Neurophysiology, 96(5), 2399-2409.
120. Venditti, A., Mirolli, M., Parisi, D., and Baldassarre, G. (2010), 'A Neural-Network Model of the Dynamics of Hunger, Learning, and Action Vigor in Mice', in Proceeding of the Italian Workshop on Artificial Life and Evolutionary Computatoin (WIVACE08), eds R. Serra, M. Villani and I. Poli, Singapore:World Scientific, pp. 131-142.
121. Winstanley, C.A., Theobald, D.E.H., Cardinal, R.N., and Robbins, T.W. (2004), 'Contrasting Roles of Basolateral Amygdala and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Impulsive Choice', The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(20), 4718-4722.
122. Wyvell, C.L., and Berridge, K.C. (2000), 'Intra-Accumbens Amphetamine Increases the Conditioned Incentive Salience of Sucrose Reward: Enhancement of Reward 'wanting'Without Enhanced 'liking' or Response Reinforcement', The Journal of Neuroscience, 20(21), 8122-8130.
123. Yin, H.H., and Knowlton, B.J. (2006), 'The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Habit Formation', Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 464-476.