Legal protection of fauna habitat in Western Australia

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 95-115

  McDonald, L ^a   Bradshaw, S D ^b   Gardner, A ^b  

^a Mallesons Stephen Jaques   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954842989     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. See Leopold A, Game Management (Charles Scribner & Sons, New York, 1933).
2. Hobbs RJ, "Effects of Landscape Fragmentation on Ecosystem Processes in the Western Australian Wheatbelt" (1994) 64 Biol Conserv at 193-201.
3. Government of Western Australia, State of the Environment Report 1998 (Government of Western Australia, Perth, 1998) p 28.
4. Australian State of the Environment Committee, Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage (CSIRO Publishing, on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, 2001).
5. Government of Western Australia, State of the Environment Report 1998 (Government of Western Australia, Perth, 1998) p 22.
6. See also Myers N, Mittermeller RA, Mittermeller CG, de Fonseca GAB and Kent J, "Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities" (2000) 403 Nature at 853-858.
7. Government of Western Australia, State of the Environment Report 1998 (Government of Western Australia, Perth, 1998) p 23.
8. Government of Western Australia, State of the Environment Report 1998 (Government of Western Australia, Perth, 1998) pp 20 and 22.
9. See also Environmental Protection Authority, Terrestrial Biodiversity Surveys as an Element of Biodiversity Protection: Position Statement No 3 (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2002) pp 3-4.
10. See eg Saunders et al, "Biodiversity" in Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, State of the Environment Australia (CSIRO Publishing, Canberra, 1996).
11. Opdam P, "Dispersal in Fragmented Habitats: The Key to Survival" in Bunce RGH and Howard DC (eds), Species Dispersal in Agricultural Habitats (Belhaven Press, London, 1990) pp 3-17.
12. Brook BW, Tonkyn DW, O'Grady JJ and Frankham R, "Contribution of Inbreeding to Extinction Risk in Threatened Species" (2002) 6 Conserv Ecol at 6-28.
13. See Gilpin ME, "Spatial Structure and Population Vulnerability" in Soule ME (ed), Viable Populations for Conservation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989) pp 125-140.
14. See Levins R, "Extinction" in Some Mathematical Questio ns in Biology (American Mathematical Society, Providence, 1970) pp 75-108
15. Harrison S and Taylor A, "Empirical Evidence for Metapopulation Dynamics" in Hanski IA and Gilpin ME (eds), Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics and Evolution (Academic Press, San Diego, 1997) pp 27-42.
16. Tilman D, May RM, Lehman CL and Nowak MA, "Habitat Destruction and the Extinction Debt" (1994) 371 Nature at 65-66
17. Wemmergren U, Ruckelhaus M and Kareiva P, "The Promise and Limitations of Spatial Models in Conservation Biology" (1995) 74 Oikos at 349-356
18. Dytham C, "The Effect of Habitat Destruction on Species Persistence: A Cellular Model" (1995) 74 Oikos at 340-344
19. Banks JE, "Do Imperfect Trade-offs Affect the Extinction Debt Phenomenon" (1997) 78 Ecology at 1597-1601.
20. Tilman D, May RM, Lehman CL and Nowak MA, "Habitat Destruction and the Extinction Debt" (1994) 371 Nature at 65-66.
21. This questionnaire was distributed by Lewis McDonald in 1998 as part of an Honours project in the Department of Zoology, University of Western Australia.
22. The average respondent had been working on their species for 8.93 years (n = 29, SE = 1.75); the range was from 1 to 34 years.
23. Three species (Western Swamp Tortoise, Brush-tailed Phascogale and Honey Possum) were discussed by two separate respondents.
24. Leopold A, Game Management (Charlie Shribner's Sons, New York, 1933).
25. Trewhella WJ, Harris S and McAllister FE, "Dispersal Distance, Home-range Size and Population Density in the Red Fox Vulpes-vulpes: A Quantitative Analysis" (1988) 25 J Appl Ecol at 423-434.
26. Hansson L, "Dispersal and Connectivity in Metapopulations" (1991) 42 Biological Proceedings of the Linnean Society at 89-103.
27. Opdam P, "Dispersal in Fragmented Populations: The Key to Survival" in Bunch RGH and Howard DC (eds), Species Dispersal in Agricultural Habitats (Belhaven Press, London, 1990) pp 3-17.
28. Sections 14, 16 and 26(1), WCA. See Sentencing Act 1995 (WA), s 40(5): maximum fine for corporations is five times the statutory maximum for natural persons.
29. WCA, s 6.
30. WCA, s 14(2)(b).
31. See Department of Conservation and Land Management, Ranking of Western Australian Threatened Fauna into IUCN Threat Categories, March 1999 (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA, 1999). All listed fauna in Western Australia were reassessed using IUCN criteria in March 1998 (see Attachment 8 to the Western Australian Regional Forest Agreement at http://www.rfa.gov.au/rfa/wa/rfa/index.html).
32. WCA, ss 26(1) and 14(ba)(ii).
33. WCA, s 14(2)(ba).
34. Department of Conservation and Land Management, CALM Briefing Paper: Conservation of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA, 1999).
35. EPBC Act, s 178(1).
36. EPBC Act, s 186(2).
37. EPBC Act, s 189.
38. EPBC Act, ss 195-196C.
39. See Department of Conservation and Land Management, Policy Statement No 44 (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA).
40. See Department of Conservation and Land Management, Policy Statement No 50: Setting Priorities for the Conservation of Western Australia's Threatened Flora and Fauna (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA).
41. Personal communication, Department of Conservation and Land Management, 17 December 2002.
42. See Orell P and Morris K, Western Australian Wildlife Management Program No 13: Chuditch Recovery Plan (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA, 1994).
43. See Burbidge AA and Kuchling G, Western Australian Wildlife Management Plan No 11: Western Swamp Tortoise Recovery Plan (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA, 1994).
44. In 2000/2001, only $2.883 million was allocated to all Australian States for this purpose. See EPBC Annual Report 2000-2001, http://www.ea.gov.au/epbc/publications/annualreports/2000-2001/pubs/epbc00-01.pdf.
45. EPBC Act, s 269A.
46. EPBC Act, s 273.
47. See http://www.calm.wa.gov.au/plants_animals/watscu_splash.html viewed 6 September 2002.
48. These recovery plans were for the Western Swamp Tortoise, Noisy Scrub-bird, Chuditch, Orange-bellied Frog and Whitebellied Frog.
49. EPBC Act, s 269.
50. EPBC Act, s 268.
51. EPBC Act, s 34D(1)(c).
52. EPBC Act, s 34D(2)(c).
53. EPBC Act, s 53(1)(c).
54. EPBC Act, s 53(2)(c).
55. EPBC Act, s 139(b).
56. EPBC Act, s 201.
57. EPBC Act, s 197.
58. EPBC Act, s 182. An ecological community is defined as an assemblage of native species inhabiting a particular area (EPBC Act, s 528).
59. EPBC Act, s 186(2).
60. EPBC Act, s 189.
61. See http://www.ea.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publiclookupcommunities.pl viewed 16 September 2002.
62. Department of Conservation and Land Management, CALM Briefing Paper: Conservation of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA, 1999).
63. Personal communication, Department of Conservation and Land Management, 17 December 2002.
64. EPBC Act, s 207A.
65. EPBC Regulations, reg 7.09(3).
66. EPBC Act, s 207B.
67. See http://www.ea.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicregisterofcriticalhabitat.pl viewed 8 September 2002. Two of these areas are on Macquarie Island and the other is on Albatross Island.
68. EPBC Regulations, reg 7.09(2).
69. EPBC Act, s 183.
70. See EPBC Act, s 270A.
71. EPBC Act, ss 268 and 269.
72. See http://www.ea.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/listings-todate.html viewed 16 September 2002.
73. See http://www.ea.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/tap/index.html viewed 8 September 2002.
74. EPBC Act, s 176(1).
75. EPBC Act, s 176(3).
76. EPBC Act, s 176(2).
77. See http://www.ea.gov.au/epbc/biodiversityconservation/bioregional.html viewed 16 September 2002.
78. See EPBC Act 2000-2001 Report, http://www.ea.gov.au/epbc/publications/annualreports/2000-2001/pubs/epbc00-01.pdf.
79. See Environment Protection Authority, Terrestrial Biodiversity Surveys as an Element of Biodiversity Protection: Position Statement No 3 (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2002).
80. See eg Environmental Protection Authority, Environmental Protection of Native Vegetation in Western Australia: Position Statement No 2 (December 2000) (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2000) p 1. This can be found at the website of the EPA: http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/docs/1032_PS2.pdf.
81. Sections 7, 18 and 19, CALM Act. Areas can also be reserved under other Western Australian Acts. However, these are outside the scope of this article.
82. LAA, s 41.
83. LAA, s 42(1).
84. LAA, ss 42(3)-(5), 45(2) and 43.
85. LAA, s 45(3).
86. CALM Act, s 7(2) and 7(4).
87. CALM Act, s 24.
88. CALM Act, s 33(3).
89. CALM Act, s 106, penalty $4,000 or six months imprisonment.
90. CALM Act, s 101B.
91. CALM Act, s 54.
92. CALM Act, s 54.
93. See CALM Act, s 56(c) and (d).
94. CALM Act, s 33(3).
95. CALM Act, ss 33(3) and 33A(1).
96. CALM Act, ss 33(3) and 33A(2).
97. CALM Act, s 7(1).
98. CALM Act, ss 55(1a) and 56(1)(a).
99. Forest Products Act 2000, s 56.
100. Forestry Products Act 2000, s 9.
101. For a copy of this agreement see http://www.rfa.gov.au/rfa/wa/rfa/index.html.
102. The environmental approval provisions of Pt 3 of the EPBC Act do not apply to an RFA forestry operation (EPBC Act, s 38) and the taking provisions of Pt 13, Div 1, Subdiv B, apply only in Commonwealth areas: subs (1)(d) of ss 196-196C, EPBC Act.
103. RFA, cl 71.
104. Environmental Protection Authority, Revised Draft Environmental Protection (Western Swamp Tortoise Habitat) Policy 2001 (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2001) http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/docs/1092_EPP_WSTH01.pdf.
105. EP Act, s 33(1).
106. Government of Western Australia, Focus on the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy Consultation Draft (Government of Western Australia, 2002) http://www.sustainability.dpc.wa.gov.au/docs/Draft_Strategy.htm viewed 9 December 2002 p. 28.
107. Government of Western Australia, Focus on the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy Consultation Draft (Government of Western Australia, 2002) http://www.sustainability.dpc.wa.gov.au/docs/Draft_Strategy.htm viewed 9 December 2002 p. 29.
108. There are 30 proposed national parks to protect old-growth forest areas (see http://www.calm.wa.gov.au/news/news.cgi?item=1025676863 viewed 21 September 2002). Indicative boundaries for three of these areas have been announced (see http://www.calm.wa.gov.au/national_parks/proposed_national_parks_maps.html viewed 21 September 2002). In relation to the reserves created under the RFA system, specific scientific criteria were used to select these areas.
109. Hargrave v Goldman (1963) 110 CLR 40
110. Leakey v National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty [1980] 1 All ER 17
111. Hicks v Lake Macquarie City Council (1992) 77 LGRA 269.
112. Gardner A, "The Duty of Care for Sustainable Land Management" (1988) 5(1) The Australasian Journal of Natural Resources Law and Policy 29 at 32ff.
113. S&LC Regulations, regs 4(1) and 4(3).
114. S&LC Act, s 32(1)(e), 32(1)(f) and 32(2)(a)(ii).
115. S&LC Act, s 35(2a).
116. S&LC Act, s 32(2)(a)(iv).
117. S&LC Act, ss 32(3)(b) and 34A.
118. This process has applied since 1995, when a Memorandum of Understanding was entered into between the Commissioner, the EPA, the Department of Environmental Protection, Agriculture Department, CALM and the Water and Rivers Commission.
119. Although, by s 40(5), Sentencing Act 1995 (WA), the maximum penalty for a corporation is five times that amount.
120. See Government's response to the State of the Environment Report found at: http://www.environ.wa.gov/DEP/response/land.html. Increased funding has been allocated to improve detection of this.
121. See EP Act, Pt IV.
122. See EP Act, s 45.
123. Environmental Protection Authority, Environmental Protection of Native Vegetation in Western Australia: Position Statement No 2 (December 2000) (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2000) p 1. This can be found at the website of the EPA: http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/docs/1032_PS2.pdf.
124. See Environmental Protection Authority, Environmental Protection of Native Vegetation in Western Australia: Position Statement No 2 (December 2000) (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2000) p 1. This can be found at the website of the EPA: http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/docs/1032_PS2.pdf, pp 7-8.
125. See Environmental Protection Authority, Environmental Protection of Native Vegetation in Western Australia: Position Statement No 2 (December 2000) (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2000) p 1. This can be found at the website of the EPA: http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/docs/1032_PS2.pdf, pp 11-13.
126. See Environment Protection Authority, Terrestrial Biodiversity Surveys as an Element of Biodiversity Protection: Position Statement No 3 (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2002).
127. See Environment Protection Authority, Terrestrial Biodiversity Surveys as an Element of Biodiversity Protection: Position Statement No 3 (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2002), pp 3-4.
128. See Environment Protection Authority, Terrestrial Biodiversity Surveys as an Element of Biodiversity Protection: Position Statement No 3 (Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, 2002), pp 5-7.
129. EPBC Act, s 18.
130. See http://www.ea.gov.au/epbc/assessmentsapprovals/referrals/significanceguide.html viewed 16 September 2002.
131. See Chapple S, "The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth): One Year Later" (2001) 18 EPLJ 523 at 526.
132. EPBC Act, Div 1 Pt 4.
133. EPBC Act, s 38.
134. See Department of Conservation and Land Management, Policy Statement No 33 (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como, WA). In this policy statement, CALM states that although it can be argued that to clear habitat would "disturb or molest" animals, this is an indirect and unsatisfactory method of approaching habitat protection.
135. Section 9 of the WCA expressly provides that the Crown is bound by the Act in relation to flora. It has been held that there is nothing in the WCA to rebut the presumption, in respect of the fauna provisions, that the Crown is not bound by legislation unless it is express or necessarily implied: Bridgetown-Greenbushes Friends of the Forest Inc v Executive Director of the Department of Conservation and Land Management (1997) 94 LGERA 380.
136. Forest Products Act 2000, s 14.
137. WCA, s 23B(1).
138. See Russel v Pennings [2001] WASCA 115.
139. WCA, ss 23D and 23F.
140. The Bill passed the Legislative Assembly on 5 November 2002. Second reading in the Legislative Council was completed on 6 March 2003 after which the Bill was referred to a Parliamentary standing committee by the Legislative Council.
141. Proposed s 51C, EP Bill.
142. See proposed Sch 6 to the EP Bill. This lists a number of situations where a clearing permit is not required for clearing. These also include where the clearing is done in order to give effect to a requirement to clear under a written law and in accordance with a prescribed standard, works approval or a licence issued under Pt IV of the EP Act.
143. Proposed s 51O(2), EP Bill.
144. Proposed Sch 5, EP Bill.
145. Proposed Sch 5, cl 1(b), EP Bill.
146. Proposed Sch 5, cll, 1(d)-(e), EP Bill.
147. As noted above, penalties for corporations are usually five times those imposed on individuals for the same offence. See s 40(5), Sentencing Act 1995 (WA).
148. Proposed s 51O(3), EP Bill.
149. Proposed s 4A, EP Bill.
150. Proposed s 51H(1), EP Bill.
151. Proposed s 51J, EP Bill.
152. Proposed s 51I, EP Bill.
153. Proposed s 70(2), EP Bill.
154. Proposed s 70(4), EP Bill.
155. EP Bill, s 111(3).
156. Proposed s 50A, EP Bill.
157. Proposed s 50B, EP Bill.
158. Proposed s 3A(2), EP Bill.
159. Proposed s 3A(2), EP Bill.
160. Proposed amendments to Sch 1 of EP Act at s 66, EP Bill.
161. Proposed s 3A(2), EP Bill.
162. Proposed amendments to Sch 1 of EP Act at s 66, EP Bill.
163. Proposed ss 74A and 74B, EP Bill.
164. See Proposed Land Clearing Legislation: EP Amendment Bill 2002 found at the EPA website http://www.epa.wa.gov.au viewed 13 November 2002.
165. See Government of Western Australia, A Biodiversity Conservation Act for Western Australia: Consultation Paper (Government of Western Australia, Perth, 2002).