Prehistory of Southern African Forestry: From vegetable garden to tree plantation

Environment and History

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 295-322

  Showers, Kate B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Acacia; Botanic gardens; Eucalyptus; Forestry; Fruit trees; Southern Africa; Tree plantation; Wattle

Indexed keywords

AFFORESTATION; CONIFEROUS TREE; GRASSLAND; NINETEENTH CENTURY; PREHISTORIC; RESTORATION ECOLOGY; TREE PLANTING; TWENTIETH CENTURY; WATER STORAGE; WATER SUPPLY; WATER TABLE;

SOUTHERN AFRICA;

ACACIA; EUCALYPTUS;

EID: 77954785863     PISSN: 09673407     EISSN: 17527023     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3197/096734010X519771     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Forest land was defined as land on which trees could or should be grown, as well as land covered with indigenous vegetation classified as trees. See discussion below for detail.
2. These plantations expanded and became the modern South African Forest industry, discussion of which is beyond the scope of this paper.
3. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town AGR 748, ref F 2058E, Hutchins, ' Conservator of Forests, Western Conservancy, Cape Town to Under-Secretary for Agriculture, 16 February 1897'.
4. Michael Williams, Deforesting the Earth: From Pre-history to Global Crisis. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003) describes the relationship between the spread of Christianity and deforestation for settlement and agricultural production in medieval Europe.
5. Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) discusses the systematic deforestation of tropical islands associated with the development of agricultural plantations that supported colonial expansion (British in particular).
6. Mary Gunn, L.E. Codd and L.E.W. Codd, Botanical Exploration of Southern Africa: An Illustrated History (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1981).
7. Mia C. Karsten, The Old Company's Garden at the Cape and its Superintendents (Cape Town: Maskew Miller Ltd., 1951).
8. Karsten, The Old Company's Garden at the Cape.
9. For details of tree cutting, see Mikael Grut, 'Notes on the history of forestry in the Western Cape 1652-1872', South African Forestry Journal 100 (March 1977): 32-37 and Grove, Green Imperialism, 133-145.
10. Richard Grove, 'Scottish Missionaries, evangelical discourses and the origins of conservation thinking in southern Africa 1820-1900', Journal of Southern African Studies 15 (1989): 163-187
11. Georgina H. Endfield and David J. Nash, 'Drought, desiccation and discourse: missionary correspondence and nineteenth-century climate change in central southern Africa', The Geographical Journal 168 no.1 (2002): 33-47.
12. Compton, R.H., 'Forward'. In Mia C. Karsten, The Old Company's Garden): ix.
13. Karsten, The Old Company's Garden.
14. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, many Protestants fled Roman Catholic France for the Protestant Netherlands. The Dutch East India Company, aware of Huguenot renown in viticulture and winemaking, recruited 176 'to enrich the settlement at the Cape', A. Wilmot, The Story of the Expansion of Southern Africa (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1894). See pp. 42-44 for detail.
15. Originally this valley was referred to as Oliphantshoek (the place of elephants) because it was home to wild animals such as elephants, hippos and rhinoceros, as well as the hunter- gatherer San and Khoi people (pejoratively referred to as 'Bushmen' and 'Hottentots').
16. In the mid-nineteenth century, South African wines were 'held in bad repute' in London: one of Cape Botanist John Croumbie Brown's first tasks was to address the problem of the quality of Cape wines (National Library of South Africa, Cape Town, John Croumbie Brown Collection, MSC5.2(2): Vines:MSS(2), John Croumbie Brown, 'Vines' (undated)). When the railway connected Franschhoek to Cape Town in 1904, large scale international trade in fruit and wine became possible.
17. Gertenbach, Marianne, 'Round and About Franschhoek. Hugenot Memorial Museum' (Franschhoek: Franschhoek Conservation Trust, undated).
18. Eugene Casalis, My life in Basutoland: A story of Missionary Enterprise, Africana Collecteana vol. XXXVIII, 1899. (Facsimilie Reprint, Cape Town: C. Struik (Pty), Ltd., 1971).
19. Baviann's Kloof (Ravine of the Baboons) was the first mission station in the Cape of Good Hope region. It was renamed Genadendal in 1806, and became the largest settlement in Cape Colony after Cape Town (Genadendal Mission Museum, undated. http://museums.org.za/genadendal).
20. Casalis, My life in Basutoland; Genadendal Mission Museum.
21. Grut, 'Notes on the history of forestry'; Grove, Green Imperialism.
22. Grut, 'Notes on the history of forestry'.
23. Names given in source material are repeated without assigning scientific names, since common names can refer to more than one species, or even to trees of different genera.
24. Grut, 'Notes on the history of forestry'.
25. François Valentijn was sent to the East Indies by the V.O.C as Minister of the Church in 1685 at the age of 19. During his 20 years in the region, he kept extensive journals, produced maps, and wrote books (Thomas Suárez, Early Mapping of South East Asia (Singapore: Periplus, 1999)
26. He visited the Cape of Good Hope five times (1685, 1695, 1705, 1714), and described it in the fifth and last part of his Beschrijvinje van Oud ern Nieuw Oost-Indien, published in Amsterdam in 1726 (Gunn et al., Botanical exploration of Southern Africa).
27. R.J. Poynton, Report of the South African Regional Commission for the Conservation and Utilization of the Soil (SARCCUS) on Tree Planting in Southern Africa, vol.2. The Eucalypts. (Pretoria: Department of Forestry, 1979).
28. Grove, 'Scottish missionaries'; see Grove, Green Imperialism: 133-145 for detail.
29. Largest plant family, 300 general, 7,500 species, of which 870 regarded as succulents (International Euphorbia Society, undated. http://www.euphorbia- international.org).
30. th April 1810'.
31. R.J. Poynton, Report of the South African Regional Commission for the Conservation and Utilization of the Soil (SARCCUS) on Tree Planting in Southern Africa, vol.I. The Pines. (Pretoria: Department of Forestry, undated).
32. Poynton, Tree Planting in Southern Africa, vol.2. The Eucalypts.
33. M. Gosselin, 'Extracts of a letter, 16 January 1837'. Station de Morija. Journal des Missions Évangéliques. (Paris: Société Missions Évangéliques, 1837)
34. Elizabeth A. Eldredge, 'An economic history of Lesotho in the nineteenth century'. Unpublished PhD thesis. Madison: University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1986).
35. See R.C. Germond, Chronicles of Basutoland (Morija: Morija Press, 1967) for missionary letters.
36. See Kate B. Showers, 'Soil erosion in the Kingdom of Lesotho: origins and colonial response, 1830-1955'. Journal of Southern African Studies 15,2 (1989): 263-286, 1989
37. Kate B. Showers Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2005)
38. Kate B. Showers, 'From forestry to soil conservation: British tree management in Lesotho's grassland ecosystem', Conservation and Society 4,1 (2006): 1-35 for discussion of missionary tree planting in Lesotho (colonial Basutoland).
39. Eldredge, 'An economic history of Lesotho'; Kate B. Showers, 'Crop or forest? Missionaries, Basotho and government tree planting', in Reginald Kline-Cole and David Kane (eds.), Making and Remaking Africa: Travel, Environment, and Local Knowledge in a Continent of Movement (London: Pluto Press; forthcoming).
40. Natal Official Handbook, Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886. (London: William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., 1886).
41. Natal Official Handbook.
42. Harald Witt, ' The emergence of privately grown industrial tree plantations', in Stephen Dovers, Ruth Edgecombe and Bill Guest (eds.), South Africa's Environmental History: Cases and Comparisons (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2002): 90-111.
43. Grove, 'Scottish missionaries', 165.
44. J.C. Visagie, 'Introduction. A historical administrative development', in Inventory to the Archives of the Conservator of Forests, Eastern Conservancy, King William's Town, 1882-1918. I/43:1-4 (Cape Town: Western Cape Archives and Records Service, 1965).
45. Jacob Tropp, 'Displaced people, replaced narratives: forest conflicts and historical perspectives in the Tsolo District, Transkei', Journal of Southern African Studies 29 (2003): 207-233
46. Visagie, 'Introduction'.
47. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository. SGO III/1/50, ref. 646/83, A. Wilkinson, 'From Convenor of Committee. Enclosure with letter from Chairman, Victorian Planter's Association, Loutham, Blackbour to Major Hime R.E., Acting Colonial Secretary, Maritzburg, February 20, 1883'.
48. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town, I/68. ISBN 0 7970 0155 5, M. George, 'Introduction', Inventory of the Archives of the Secretary for Public Works 1872-1911.
49. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town: AGR48, ref f1110, Knysna Timber Depot, ' Control of Seasoning and Creosoting Timber, etc. To the Under-Secretary for Agriculture, 4 July 1895'.
50. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town. GH 23/24, ref 74:60, H.M.E. Frere, 'Governor, Graham's Town to Earl of Carnarvon, September 2, 1877'.
51. First on the continent of Africa. For detailed discussion of Cape Colony Forestry see Karen Brown, 'Trees, forests and communities: some historiographical approaches to environmental history on Africa', Area 35,4 (2003): 343-356.
52. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository. CSO 1181, ref 935/1888, Report of the Superintendent of Woods and Forests for the Year 1882 (Translation). Cape of Good Hope. Ministerial Department of Crown Lands and Public Works. 1882 (Cape Town: W.A. Richards & Sons, 1882).
53. Visagie, 'Introduction'.
54. Karen Brown, 'Trees, forests and communities'.
55. Londa Schiebinger, Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). For review of the development of the field of botany, bioprospecting, and the relationships between plants, botanical gardens and empires and pertinent literature see 'Introduction', p. 1-12.
56. th January 1864' (Cape Town: Saul Soloman & Co., 1864)
57. Brown, J.C., 'On the conservation and extension of the forests as a means of counteracting disastrous consequences following the destruction of bush and herbage by fire'. Enclosure No. 1. Annual Report. Report of the Colonial Botanist for the Year 1863. Cape of Good Hope. (Cape Town: Saul Solomon and Co., 1863); Grove, 'Scottish missionaries'; Endfield and Nash, 'Drought, desiccation and discourse'.
58. John Croumbie Brown, ' Report of the Colonial Botanist for the Year 1865. 15th January 1866. Cape of Good Hope' (Cape Town: Saul Solomon & Co., 1966)
59. John Croumbie Brown, 'Letter to Dr. Mueller, Government Botanist and Director, Melbourne Botanical Gardens, relative to Shrubs and Trees used here for Fences, Avenues and Burying Grounds. Wynburg, 14th January 1866'. Annexure 12, p. 108-109
60. Report of the Colonial Botanist for the Year 1865. Cape of Good Hope. (Cape Town: Saul Solomon & Co.,1866).
61. J.C. Brown, 'On the conservation and extension of the forests'.
62. The 17th-century term ' botanic' has been mostly superseded by ' botanical'; it is retained in the official names of older institutions.
63. J. C. Brown, ' On the Cape Botanic Garden'. Enclosure No. 111: 37-44.
64. Annual Report. Report of the Colonial Botanist for the Year 1863. Cape of Good Hope (Cape Town: Saul Solomon & Co., 1863)
65. John Croumbie Brown, 'Circular to residents of colony regarding relative irrigation facilities. 1 June 1866. Appended to report: Memoire on hydrology of South Africa. Abstract of memoir on Irrigation'.
66. National Library of South Africa, Cape Town: John Croumbie Brown Collection. MSC5, 3(5): J.M.McGibbon, 'Catalogue
67. James McGibbon, 'Catalogue. Fruit-bearing trees & plants in the collection of the Botanic Garden, Cape Town'. (Cape Town: Saul Solomon & Co., 1864).
68. National Library of South Africa, John Croumbie Brown Collection, MSC5, 112(2): Forestry (gen)., John Croumbie Brown, 'Memoire
69. John Croumbie Brown, Report of the Colonial Botanist for the Year 1866. Cape of Good Hope. (Cape Town: Saul Solomon & Co., 1866).
70. C.H.Huntley, 'Report of the Committee of the Botanic Garden, Graham's Town, for Nine Months of the Year 1872'. (Cape of Good Hope: Government Printer, 1873)
71. Report on the Graaf-Reinet Botanic Garden for the period ending 30th April 1874'. Cape of Good Hope, Graaf-Reinet, 30 April 1874. (Cape Town: Government Printer, 1874).
72. th January 1868. Reports on the Natal Botanic Gardens for the years 1866 and 1867';
73. Killie Campbell Africana Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Memorandum Book 1865-1871. Durban Botanic Society, Book 1. KCM 43065, M.J. 'To the Committee of the Natal Botanic Gardens. Reports on the Natal Botanic Gardens, for the Years 1866 and 1867'.
74. Killie CampbellAfricana Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Memorandum Book 1865-1871. Durban Botanic Society, Book 1. KCM43065, M.J. M.J. McKen, ' Curator to the Committee of the Natal Botanic gardens. Government Notice No. 191, 1872'.
75. R.G. Stone, 'Report of the Committee of the Botanic Garden, Graham's Town, for the year 1865'. (Cape Town: Government Printer, 1866).
76. Killie CampbellAfricana Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Memorandum Book 1865-1871. Durban Botanic Society, Book 1. KCM 43065, M.J.McKen, 'Report of the Natal Botanic Gardens for the first six months of 1867. July 1, 1867. Reports on the Natal Botanic Gardens for the years 1866 and 1867'.
77. Morija Museum and Archives, Morija, Lesotho, Sumitra Talukdar, 'The spread of Australian species and their displacement of the indigenous flora of Lesotho'. Presented at XIII International Botanical Congress, Sydney, Australia, August 1891. Reprint, ' Letter from Vicaire Apostolique, 3 May 1866', Missions de la Congregation des Missionnaires Oblate de Marie Immaculee, 6:214.
78. Y. Beaudoin, Blessed Joseph Gerrard O.M.I., Apostate to the Basotho (1831-1914). (Rome: General Postulation O.M.I.).
79. Huntley, 'Report of the Committee of the Botanic Garden, Graham's Town, for Nine Months of the Year 1872'.
80. Killie CampbellAfricana Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Memorandum Book 1865-1871. Durban Botanic Society, Book 1. KCM 43065, M.J. McKen, 'Curator to the Committee of the Natal Botanic gardens'. Government Notice No. 191, 1872.
81. Killie CampbellAfrican Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Paper Cuttings. Natal Herbarium, 1882 Durban Botanic Society, Book 4. KCM 43068, L. Acutt, 'Report on Tree Planting'. Minutes. Natal Botanic Gardens Committee Meeting 11 April 1883.
82. Pietermaritzburg Archive Repository. CSO 1298, ref 2979/1891, F. Schoepflin, 'Conservator of Forests to Surveyor General, 1891.
83. J. C. Brown, 'On the conservation and extension of the forests': 5-17.
84. National Archives, Pretoria FOR 177, ref A310, J. Storr Lister, 'Practical Hints on Tree Planting in the Cape Colony', Forest Department (Cape Town: W. A. Richards & Sons., 1884).
85. nd September 1890, ref SNA 1031/90'.
86. rd May 1905';
87. National Archives, Pretoria. AGT vol29, ref 1335/06, Department of Agriculture, 'Grants in Aid of Tree Planting'.
88. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town. AGR 747, ref 1998, 'Regulations for Tree Planting Competition'. Order of Speaker 1895, Cape of Good Hope;
89. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town: AMPT PUBS CCP1/2/1/94, ref G62
90. th October 1894'.
91. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town. AGR 741, ref F 1998, Assembly 24/7/95, 1895.
92. J.M. Mohapeloa, Tentative British Imperialism in Lesotho, 1884-1910. A Study in Basotho-Colonial Office Interaction and South Africa's Influence in it. (Moirja: Morija Museum and Archives, 2002).
93. Maritzburg and Pietermaritzburg are the same place; as with trees, the name used in the source will be retained in this text.
94. Killie Campbell Africana Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, Paper Cuttings. Natal Herbarium. Durban Botanical Society, 1896, Book 5. RCM 43069, 'Report of the Council for 1895 Annual Meeting. Maritzburg Botanic Society, 1896';
95. Witt, 'The emergence of privately grown industrial tree plantations'.
96. Brown, J.C., 'On the conservation and extension of the forests'.
97. th March 1897
98. The first state-sponsored tree plantations in the Cape Colony were established near Cape Town in the 1870s to provide easily accessible wood for fuel and sleepers (K. Brown, 'Trees, forests and communities'). In Natal, state plantations appeared at the end of the 19th century (Witt, 'The emergence of privately grown industrial tree plantations').
99. th March 1897'.
100. Brown, K., 'Trees, forests and communities'.
101. Witt , 'The emergence of privately grown industrial tree plantations', claims that the phrase 'timber famine', which became common in the twentieth century, reached Natal in 1902 when forester T.R. Sim arrived from his post as Curator, King William's Town, Cape Colony Forest Department.
102. Western Cape Archives Records Service, Cape Town: CO 4116 ref 34
103. th April 1860'.
104. Mohapeloa, Tentative British Imperialism in Lesotho.
105. James McGibbon, 'Report of the Commissioners of the Botanic Garden, Cape Town, for the Year 1871'. Cape of Good Hope. 1872. (Cape Town: Government Printer, 1872).
106. James C.H. 1873. Chairman. 'Report of the Botanical Gardens, Graham's Town, for Nine months of the year 1872'. (Cape of Good Hope: Government Printer, 1873).
107. Huntley, 'Report of the Botanical Gardens, Graham's Town, for Nine months of the year 1872'.
108. C.H. Huntley, 'Report of the Committee of the Botanic Gardens, Graham's Town, for the year 1873'. (Cape of Good Hope. Government Printer: 1874).
109. Eldredge, 'An economic history of Lesotho'.
110. William Tuck, 'Report on the Graaf-Reinet Botanic Gardens for the Year 1878. Cape of Good Hope. Graaf-Reinet, 15 March 1879' (Cape Town: Government Printer 1879).
111. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town. AGR 228, ref 2096, 'From general Manager of Railways, 23 October 1894, Cape Town to Under Secretary of Agriculture. No g15914'.
112. Rhodes House, Oxford University, Natal. Agriculture. 621.14r. 19(3), Arthurs E. Cave (compiler), The Book of Natal Industries 1893, 1st edition (Durban: T.L.Cullingworth).
113. F.C.S. MacOwan, 'Report of the Government Botanist and Curator of the Cape Government Herbarium for the year 1895'. Cape of Good Hope. Department of Agriculture. (Cape Town: W.R. Richards & Sons, 1896).
114. Poynton, Tree Planting in Southern Africa, vol.2. The Eucalypts; Witt, 'The emergence of privately grown industrial tree plantations'.
115. Talukdar, 'The spread of Australian species'.
116. th 1874.
117. Bentley, 'On the character, properties and use of the Eucalyptus globulus'.
118. Bentley, 'On the character, properties and use of the Eucalyptus globulus'.
119. National Archives, Pretoria. RRC 30, ref 33/05, Charles C. Legat, 'Conservator of Forests, Transvaal Department of Agriculture, 27 April 1905 to Director of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.
120. Brown, J.C., 'Letter to Dr. Mueller.
121. th April 1874'. Cape of Good Hope. Graaf-Reinet. (Cape Town: Government Printer, 1874);
122. Killie Campbell African Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Paper Cuttings. Natal Herbarium, 1882 Durban Botanic Society, Book 4. KCM 43068, William Keit, 'Curator's Report for 1875'. Natal Botanic Gardens. Government Notice No. 132, 1876;
123. st, 1878'.
124. Killie Campbell African Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Paper Cuttings. Natal Herbarium, 1882 Durban Botanic Society, Book 4. KCM 43068, William Keit, 'Curator's Report for 1875'. Natal Botanic Gardens. Government Notice No. 132, 1876;
125. st, 1878.
126. th April 1860'.
127. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository CSO 1298 ref 2972/1891, E.W. Hannaford, 'Secretary,Pietermaritzburg Botanic Society to ColonialSecretary, Natal, 5th June 1891
128. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository CSO 1298 ref 2979/1891, F.Schoepflin, 'Conservator of Forests to Surveyor General, 1891'.
129. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository. CSO 1180, ref 694/1888, Dr. Sutherland, 'To Colonial Secretary, Natal, 13 Feb 1888'.
130. Cave, Book of Natal Industries.
131. Sutton, Wattle Bark.
132. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository. CSO 1180, ref 694/1888, D. Sutherland, 'To Colonial Secretary, Natal, 13 Feb 1888'.
133. According to J.H. Maiden, curator of Technological Museum, Sydney, and quoted by Geo M. Sutton in 'Wattle Bark: A Paying Industry' (Pietermaritzburg: P. Davis & Sons, 1892:2), the name wattle is derived from the Anglo-Saxon watel, 'a hurdle covering, the verb is watelen, to watel, to twist together, strengthen with hurdles'. The common practice in Australia in the early days was to erect temporary structures of small trees, of Acacias as well as others. Here in Natal, the same thing was done, but there being no Acacias suitable other indigenous saplings were used. The name 'wattle and daub' for a house or hut made of hurdles and covered with mud is well known in Natal. Mr. Maiden says 'The Rev. Dr. Wools, however, assures me that the earliest application of the word wattle was not to an Acacia, but to Calliconia serratifolia, a small tree belonging to the Saxifragae, and which is generally found near watercourses. It was probably abundant along the course of the streams which flowed into Sydney Cove; and in the earliest records of 'daub and wattle' structures, the tough saplings of this species were alluded to. In Natal we had the word, but not the Acacias, and I think it is only fair to conclude that the reason why the word "wattle" became confined in everyday use in Australia to certain of the Acacia tribe is on account of their habit of seeding so freely, and growing thickly with straight stems, rendering them more easily available for wattling than many species. In Natal no one species of tree predominates to the extent Acacias do in Australia.'
134. Sutton, 'Wattle Bark', citing Maidern, stated that 'Acacia mollisima is a synonym of A. Decurrens, var mollissima. It was called black wattle by the older New South Wales colonists. This name was used in Victoria and Tasmania, but called green wattle in New South Wales now.'
135. Royal Botanic Society. 2004. Flora Zambesiaca, Taxon detail Acacia mearnsii. http://apps.kew.org/efloras/namedetail.do?flora=f2&taxon= 2107&n.
136. McKen, 'Curator to the Committee of the Natal Botanic gardens'.
137. Sutton, Wattle Bark.
138. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town . AGR 212, ref F 1626, W. Power, 'Resident Magistrate, Mount Ayliff, 8 January 1894. Supply of Silver Wattle and Black Wattle Seed. No. 9 GD/94. To Conservator of Forests, Umtata.
139. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town. AGR 207, ref 1563, 'Office of the Secretary for Native Affairs. 1894. To Under Secretary for Agriculture, 11 May 1894'.
140. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository. SNA I/1/395, ref 1908/966, Charles Hayter, 'Supervisor, Swartkop to Under-Secretary of Native Affairs, 27/3/08'.
141. Keit, 'Curator's Report for 1875'.
142. Sutton, Wattle Bark.
143. Sutton, Wattle Bark: 43.
144. Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository. CSO 1578, ref 1898/6571, D.W. Dienaar, 'Government Secretary, Bloemfontein, 1 September 1898 to Colonial Secretary, Pietermaritzburg' and responses on Minute Paper. 1.9.98. Letter to Gov. Sec. 12.9.98. Western Cape Archives and Records Service, Cape Town. AGR 219, ref 1798, Farmers' Association in Great Brak River, Paarl. 1891. 'Requests to government'.
145. Report of the Council 1895.
146. Grove, ' Scottish missionaries'; Endfield and Nash, ' Drought, desiccation and discourse'.
147. 'Report of the Superintendent of Woods and Forests for the Year 1882'.
148. Wilkinson, 'From Convenor of Committee'.
149. Discussion of the development of South Africa's forest industry is beyond the scope of this paper. Its is of interest, perhaps, to note that the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) expanded its definition of forest in 2000 by 'adopt[ing] a threshold of 10% minimum crown cover. The definition includes both natural forest and forest plantations'. 'Executive Summary', Global Forest Resources Assessment 2001, Main Report. Rome: FAO, 2001. This definition justifies South Africa's claim to having extensive forests and a forest service, rather than large-scale tree crop production and an advice system for growers.
150. th January 1899'.
151. C.L. Wicht, 'Forest hydrology research in the South African Republic', in William E. Sopper and Howard W. Lull, Forest Hydrology (Oxford: Pergamon Press), 75-84.
152. U.W. Nanni, U.W, 'Trees, water and perspective', South African Forestry Journal 75 (1970): 9-17.
153. C.L. Wicht (1908-1978) was Research officer, Department of Forestry (1934-1950), rising to Chief of Forest Research (1947-1950)
154. Forestry Professor, University of Stel- lenbosch (1950-1973) and, after retirement, consultant to the Forestry Department. Obituary, Dr. C.L. Wicht, South African Forestry Journal 106 (September 1978): 1.
155. Nanni, 'Trees, water and perspective'; C.L. Wicht, 'Timber and water', South African Forestry Journal 85 (June 1973): 3-11.
156. U.W. Nänni, 'The effect of afforestation in streamflow at Cathedral Peak: Report No. 1', South African Forestry Journal 74 (1970): 6-12.
157. Ackerman, D.P., 'Some new directions in forestry policy', South African Forestry Journal 68 (1969): 1-4.
158. Eucalyptus and pine.
159. Ilse Steyl, 'Strategic Environmental Assessment for streamflow reduction activities in South Africa', undated. Available at: http://www-dwaf.pwv.gov.za/ sfra/Articles/Oxford-paper.pdf;
160. J.M. Bosch and J.D. Hewlett 'A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration', Journal of Hydrology 55(1982): 3-22.
161. As documented by Witt, ' The emergence of privately grown industrial tree plantations'.