Understanding environmental models in their legal and regulatory context

Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 251-283

  Fisher, Elizabeth ^a   Pascual, Pasky ^b   Wagner, Wendy ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

Administrative decision making; Environmental regulation; Models; Science and law

Indexed keywords

ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK; DECISION MAKING; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH; POLICY MAKING; REGULATORY FRAMEWORK;

EID: 77954496040     PISSN: 09528873     EISSN: 1464374X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jel/eqq012     Document Type: Article

References (154)

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38. Council for Regulatory Environmental Modelling (CREM)
39. See accessed 14 June 2010.
40. The Environment Agency of England and Wales has an Air Quality Modelling and Assessment Unit (AQMAU) and see the European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change which is contracted to the European Environment Agency
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43. Case studies in P Harremoës and others (eds), The Precautionary Principle in the Twentieth Century: Late Lessons From Early Warnings (Earthscan Publications, London 2002)
44. For examples see the two papers making up 'The Stern Review: A Dual Critique' (2006) 7 World Economics 165
45. The issues raised in Downs v Secretary of State for Environment Food and Rural Affairs [2009] Env LR 19
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47. See the case studies in Michaels (n 35)
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51. E Kintisch, 'Stolen E-mails Turn Up Heat on Climate Change Rhetoric' (2009) 326 Science 1329
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58. R Kagan, Adversarial Legalism: The American Way of Law (Harvard UP, Cambridge 2003)
59. Also see T McGarity and W Wagner, 'Legal Aspects of the Regulatory Use of Environmental Modeling' (2003) 33 Environmental Law Reporter 10751
60. R (on the application of Edwards) (n 23); McLouth Steel Products Corp v Thomas 838
61. Small Refiner Lead Phase Down Task force v EPA 705
62. Small Refiner (n 46); MDI (n 45); Edison Electric Institute v EPA 2
63. Gulf South Insulation (n 24); American Iron & Steel Institute v EPA 115
64. American Iron & Steel Institute (n 48); Central Arizona Water Conservation District v EPA 990
65. Flue-Cured Tobacco Co-op (n 46)
66. Case T-229/04 Sweden v Commission [2007] ECR I-2437; Downs (n 36); Ulan Coal Mines Ltd v Minister for Planning [2008] NSWLEC 185
67. Chlorine Chemistry Council v EPA 206 F3d 1286 (DC Cir 2000); Xstrata Coal Queensland Pty Ltd (n 9)
68. Small Refiner (n 46) 535; Case C -280/02 Commission v France [2004] ECR I-8573 and Australian Pork Ltd v Director of Animal and Plant Quarantine [2005] FCA 671
69. Downs (n 36); Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs v Downs [2009] EWCA Civ 664, [2009] 3 CMLR 46
70. For a discussion of the case see L Warren, 'Healthy Crops or Healthy People? Balancing the Needs for Pest Control Against the Effect of Pesticides on Bystanders' (2009) 21 JEL 483
71. Council Directive 91/414/EC of 15 July 1991 concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market [1991] OJ L230/1. For her arguments see Downs (n 36) [6].
72. For a discussion of this see Downs (n 36) [4-5] and Warren (n 55) 492-4
73. Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corporation [1948] 1 KB 223
74. See B.1.5 of Annex VI of Directive 91/414/EEC (n 56).
75. Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (n 55) [42]
76. Para 7.2.2. of Annex III of Council Directive 91/441/EEC (n 67).
77. Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (n 55) [53]
78. S Yearley, 'Sociology and Climate Change After Kyoto: What Roles for Social Science in Understanding Climate Change?' (2009) 57 Current Sociology 389
79. A Petersen, 'Models as Technological Artefacts' (2000) 30 Social Studies of Science 793
80. S Rayner and E Malone (eds) Human Choice and Climate Change, Volume One: The Societal Framework (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Battelle Press, Columbus 1998)
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82. P Pascual, 'Wresting Environmental Decisions From an Uncertain World' (2005) 35 Environmental Law Reporter 10539
83. M Crichton, State of Fear (HarperCollins, New York 2004)
84. J Ravetz, 'Models as Metaphors', in B Kasemir and others (eds) Public Participation in Sustainability Science: A Handbook (CUP, Cambridge 2003) 75
85. Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (n 55) [91] (assessing the view in the scientific community); WTO Panel Report, Japan-Measures Affecting Agricultural Products (Varietals), AB-1998-8, 22 February 1999, [8.32] (deference to expert panel).
86. See eg the discussions of the administrative frameworks in Downs and as re-described in Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (n 55). Other examples include Case T-13/99 Pfizer (n 24) and Australian Pork Ltd (n 54).
87. Lawyers for Forests Inc v Minister for the Environment Heritage and the Arts [2009] FCA 330, [86]
88. Case T-13/99 Pfizer (n 24); R (on the application of Eisai Ltd) v National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence [2008] EWCA Civ 438, (2008) 11 CCL Rep 385
89. M Hesse, Models and Analogies in Science (University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame 1966)
90. A Creager and others (eds) Science Without Laws: Model Systems, Cases, Exemplary Narratives (Duke University Press, Durham 2007)
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92. M Meyer, 'Increasing the Frame: Interdisciplinarity, Transdisciplinarity, and Representativity' (2007) 32 Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 203, 209
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94. I Grosse and others, 'Ontologies for Supporting Engineering Analysis Models' (2005) 19 Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 1
95. Holmes and others (n 10) 161; NRC (n 3) 21
96. P Pascual, 'Avoiding Tragedies of the Intellectual Commons through Integrated Impact Assessments' (2007) 21 Water Resources and Management 2005
97. Morrison and Morgan (n 88)
98. In this regard it can be thought of as part of 'regulatory science'
99. See S Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policy Makers (Harvard UP, Cambridge 1990) 81
100. S Leigh Star and J Greisemer, 'Institutional Ecology, 'Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39' (1989) 19 Social Studies of Science 387, 393
101. Also see Pascual (n 96)
102. NRC, Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process (National Academy Press, Washington, DC 1983)
103. C Sunstein, The Cost Benefit State: The Future of Regulatory Protection (American Bar Association, Washington, DC 2002)
104. J Holder, Environmental Assessment: The Regulation of Decision-Making (OUP, Oxford 2005)
105. E Tufte, The Visual Display of Quatntitative Information (Graphics Press, Cheshire 2001)
106. C Sunstein, The Partial Constitution (Harvard UP, Cambridge 1993)
107. H Collins, Regulating Contracts (OUP, Oxford 1999) 7
108. On worthiness and legitimacy see J Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society (The Polity Press, Cambridge 1984) 178
109. K Beven, Environmental Modelling: An Uncertain Future? (Routledge, London 2009)
110. N Oreskes, 'Evaluation (Not Validation) of Quantitative Models' (1998) 106 Environmental Health Perspectives 1453
111. Jasanoff and Wynne (n 5)
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116. S Rayner and E Malone (eds), Human Choice and Climate Change - Volume Four (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Battelle Press, Columbus, OH 1998) 120
117. J Smith and P Smith, Environmental Modelling: An Introduction (OUP, Oxford 2007) 2
118. This can particularly be seen in the related area of financial models
119. See G Tett, Fool's Gold: How Unrestrained Greed Corrupted a Dream, Shattered Global Markets and Unleashed a Catastrophe (Little Brown, London 2009)
120. B Cook, Bureaucracy and Self Government: Reconsidering the Role of Public Administration in American Government (Johns Hopkins UP, Baltimore, MD 1996)
121. J Dryzek, The Politics of the Earth: Environmental Discourses (2nd edn OUP, Oxford 2005)
122. S Shapiro and R Glicksman, Risk Regulation At Risk: Restoring A Pragmatic Approach (Stanford UP, Stanford 2003)
123. C Sunstein, Risk and Reason: Safety, Law and the Environment (CUP, Cambridge 2002)
124. T McGarity, 'A Cost Benefit State' (1998) 50 Administrative Law Review 7
125. J Mashaw, Greed, Chaos and Governance: Using Public Choice to Improve Public Law (Yale UP, New Haven 1997) 1-29
126. NRC, Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society (National Academy Press, Washington DC 1996) 100
127. M B Beck (ed), Environmental Foresight and Models: A Manifesto (Elsevier, Amsterdam 2002)
128. E Fisher, 'Drowning by Numbers: Standard Setting in Risk Regulation and the Pursuit of Accountable Public Administration' (2000) 20 OJLS 109
129. R Stewart, 'The Reformation of American Administrative Law' (1975) 88 Harvard Law Review 1661
130. Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (n 55) [76]-[91]
131. Wagner and others (n 2)
132. J Rotmans and H Dowlatabadi, 'Integrated Assessment Modelling' in S Rayner and E Malone (eds), Human Choice and Climate Change: Volume Three Tools for Policy Analysis (Battelle Press, Columbus, OH 1998)
133. H Nowotny and others Re-thinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty (Polity Press, Cambridge 2001) 106
134. Rotmans and Dowlatabadi (n 132) 294
135. J Kagan, The Three Cultures: Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, and the Humanities in the 21st Century (CUP, Cambridge 2009)
136. M Strathern, Commons and Borderlands: Working Papers on Interdisciplinarity, Accountability and the Flow of Knowledge (Sean Kingston Publishing, Wantage 2004) 68-86
137. For a discussion of this point see Shapiro (n 40); McGarity and Wagner (n 44)
138. The distinction between contributory and interactional expertise is taken from H Collins and R Evans, Rethinking Expertise (University of Chicago Press, Chicago 2007)
139. See also H Collins and others, 'Trading Zones and Interactional Expertise' (2007) 38 Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 657
140. Collins and Evans (n 139) 28
141. S Jasanoff, 'Breaking the Waves in Science Studies: Comment on H.M. Collins and Robert Evans, "The Third Wave of Science Studies"' (2003) 33 Social Studies of Science 389.
142. B Wynne, 'Seasick on the Third Wave? Subverting the Hegemony of Propositionalism: Response to Collins & Evans (2002)' (2003) 33 Social Studies of Science 401
143. For a broader discussion of its use in environmental law see E Fisher and others 'Maturity and Methodology: Starting a Debate about Environmental Law Scholarship' (2009) 21 JEL 213 at 231-5
144. And often problematic because the same word can mean different things in different disciplines. See Kagan (n 134) 5-11.
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147. Morrison and Morgan (n 88) 28
148. S Leigh Star and K Ruhleder, 'Steps Towards An Ecology of Infrastructure Design and Access for Large Information Spaces' (1996) 7 Information Systems Research 111, 111
149. G Bowker and S Leigh Star, Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences (MIT Press, Cambridge 2000) 24, 34
150. T McGarity and W Wagner, Bending Science: How Special Interests Corrupt Public Health Research (Harvard UP, Cambridge 2008)
151. W Wagner, 'The Science Charade in Toxic Risk Regulation' (1995) 95 Columbia Law Review 1613
152. D Michaels and C Monforton, 'Scientific Evidence in the Regulatory System: Manufacturing Uncertainty and the Demise of the Formal Regulatory System' (2005) 13 Journal of Law and Policy 17
153. W Freudenburg and others 'Scientific Uncertainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt' (2008) 78 Sociological Inquiry 2
154. Pascual (n 96) 2011; Beck (n 147). On the abuse of transparency see Michaels (n 35) 176-91.