Fastidious intracellular bacteria as causal agents of community-acquired pneumonia

Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2010, Pages 775-790

  Lamoth, Frédéric ^a   Greub, Gilbert ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Atypical pneumonia; Empirical therapy; Intracellular bacteria; Lung infections

Indexed keywords

AZITHROMYCIN; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; DOXYCYCLINE; ERYTHROMYCIN; GATIFLOXACIN; GEMIFLOXACIN; LEVOFLOXACIN; MACROLIDE; MOXIFLOXACIN; PLACEBO; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; SPARFLOXACIN; TELITHROMYCIN; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE;

ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; BACTERIAL GROWTH; BACTERIUM DETECTION; CHLAMYDIA; CHLAMYDIAL PNEUMONIA; CHLAMYDOPHILA PNEUMONIAE; CHLAMYDOPHILA PSITTACI; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; COXIELLA BURNETII; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMAN; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; INTRACELLULAR BACTERIUM; LEGIONELLA PNEUMOPHILA; LEGIONNAIRE DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIA; MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIAE; NONHUMAN; ORNITHOSIS; PARACHLAMYDIA ACANTHAMOEBAE; Q FEVER; REVIEW; SIMKANIA NEGEVENSIS;

BACTERIA; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MACROLIDES; PNEUMONIA, BACTERIAL; QUINOLONES;

EID: 77954240429     PISSN: 14787210     EISSN: 17448336     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/eri.10.52     Document Type: Review

References (204)

1. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax 56(Suppl. 4), IV1-64 (2001).
2. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in childhood. Thorax 57(Suppl. 1), i1-i24 (2002).
3. Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(Suppl. 2), S27-S72 (2007).
4. Battleman DS, Callahan M, Thaler HT. Rapid antibiotic delivery and appropriate antibiotic selection reduce length of hospital stay of patients with community-acquired pneumonia: link between quality of care and resource utilization. Arch. Intern. Med. 162(6), 682-688 (2002).
5. Houck PM, Bratzler DW, Nsa W, Ma A, Bartlett JG. Timing of antibiotic administration and outcomes for Medicare patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch. Intern. Med. 164(6), 637-644 (2004).
6. Meehan TP, Fine MJ, Krumholz HM et al. Quality of care, process, and outcomes in elderly patients with pneumonia. JAMA 278(23), 2080-2084 (1997).
7. Cunha BA. The atypical pneumonias: clinical diagnosis and importance. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12(Suppl. 3), 12-24 (2006).
8. Murdoch DR, Chambers ST. Atypical pneumonia - time to breathe new life into a useful term? Lancet Infect. Dis. 9(8), 512-519 (2009).
9. Arnold FW, Summersgill JT, Lajoie AS et al. A worldwide perspective of atypical pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 175(10), 1086-1093 (2007).
10. Bartlett JG. Is activity against "atypical" pathogens necessary in the treatment protocols for community-acquired pneumonia? Issues with combination therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47(Suppl. 3), S232-S236 (2008).
11. Bochud PY, Moser F, Erard P et al. Community-acquired pneumonia. A prospective outpatient study. Medicine (Baltimore) 80(2), 75-87 (2001).
12. Tsolia MN, Psarras S, Bossios A et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized school-age children: evidence for high prevalence of viral infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39(5), 681-686 (2004).
13. File TM. Community-acquired pneumonia. Lancet 362(9400), 1991-2001 (2003).
14. Fang GD, Yu VL, Vickers RM. Disease due to the Legionellaceae (other than Legionella pneumophila). Historical, microbiological, clinical, and epidemiological review. Medicine (Baltimore) 68(2), 116-132 (1989).
15. Muder RR, Yu VL. Infection due to Legionella species other than L. pneumophila. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(8), 990-998 (2002).
16. Yu VL, Plouffe JF, Pastoris MC et al. Distribution of Legionella species and serogroups isolated by culture in patients with sporadic community-acquired legionellosis: an international collaborative survey. J. Infect. Dis. 186(1), 127-128 (2002).
17. Lamoth F, Greub G. Amoebal pathogens as emerging agents of pneumonia. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 34, 260-280 (2010).
18. Fraser DW, Tsai TR, Orenstein W et al. Legionnaires' disease: description of an epidemic of pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 297(22), 1189-1197 (1977).
19. McDade JE, Shepard CC, Fraser DW, Tsai TR, Redus MA, Dowdle WR. Legionnaires' disease: isolation of a bacterium and demonstration of its role in other respiratory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 297(22), 1197-1203 (1977).
20. Brenner DJ, Steigerwalt AG, McDade JE. Classification of the Legionnaires' disease bacterium: Legionella pneumophila, genus novum, species nova, of the family Legionellaceae, familia nova. Ann. Intern. Med. 90(4), 656-658 (1979).
21. Rowbotham TJ. Preliminary report on the pathogenicity of Legionella pneumophila for freshwater and soil amoebae. J. Clin. Pathol. 33(12), 1179-1183 (1980).
22. Rowbotham TJ. Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from clinical specimens via amoebae, and the interaction of those and other isolates with amoebae. J. Clin. Pathol. 36(9), 978-986 (1983).
23. Rowbotham TJ. Current views on the relationships between amoebae, legionellae and man. Isr J. Med. Sci. 22(9), 678-689 (1986).
24. Woodhead M. Community-acquired pneumonia in Europe: causative pathogens and resistance patterns. Eur. Respir. J. 36(Suppl.), S20-S27 (2002).
25. Neil K, Berkelman R. Increasing incidence of legionellosis in the United States, 1990-2005: changing epidemiologic trends. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47(5), 591-599 (2008).
26. Adeleke AA, Fields BS, Benson RF et al. Legionella drozanskii sp. nov., Legionella rowbothamii sp. nov. and Legionella fallonii sp. nov.: three unusual new Legionella species. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51(Pt 3), 1151-1160 (2001).
27. Benson RF, Fields BS. Classification of the genus Legionella. Semin. Respir. Infect. 13(2), 90-99 (1998).
28. Benin AL, Benson RF, Besser RE. Trends in legionnaires disease, 1980-1998: declining mortality and new patterns of diagnosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(9), 1039-1046 (2002).
29. Phares CR, Wangroongsarb P, Chantra S et al. Epidemiology of severe pneumonia caused by Legionella longbeachae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Chlamydia pneumoniae: 1-year, population-based surveillance for severe pneumonia in Thailand. Clin. Infect. Dis. 45(12), e147-e155 (2007).
30. Adeleke A, Pruckler J, Benson R, Rowbotham T, Halablab M, Fields B. Legionella-like amebal pathogens - phylogenetic status and possible role in respiratory disease. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2(3), 225-230 (1996).
31. Fernandez-Sabe N, Roson B, Carratala J, Dorca J, Manresa F, Gudiol F. Clinical diagnosis of Legionella pneumonia revisited: evaluation of the Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group scoring system. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(4), 483-489 (2003).
32. Murdoch DR. Diagnosis of Legionella infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(1), 64-69 (2003).
33. Ingram JG, Plouffe JF. Danger of sputum purulence screens in culture of Legionella species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32(1), 209-210 (1994).
34. Shimada T, Noguchi Y, Jackson JL et al. Systematic review and metaanalysis: urinary antigen tests for Legionellosis. Chest 136(6), 1576-1585 (2009).
35. Kohler RB, Winn WC Jr, Wheat LJ. Onset and duration of urinary antigen excretion in Legionnaires disease. J. Clin. Microbiol. 20(4), 605-607 (1984).
36. Diederen BM. Legionella spp. and Legionnaires' disease. J. Infect. 56(1), 1-12 (2008).
37. Fields BS, Benson RF, Besser RE. Legionella and Legionnaires' disease: 25 years of investigation. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15(3), 506-526 (2002).
38. Formica N, Yates M, Beers M et al. The impact of diagnosis by legionella urinary antigen test on the epidemiology and outcomes of Legionnaires' disease. Epidemiol. Infect. 127(2), 275-280 (2001).
39. Wever PC, Notermans DW, Tulevski II, Schattenkerk JK, de Jong MD. Detection of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 antigen in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid by an immunochromatographic assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41(5), 2265 (2003).
40. Dominguez J, Gali N, Blanco S et al. Assessment of a new test to detect Legionella urinary antigen for the diagnosis of Legionnaires' Disease. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 41(4), 199-203 (2001).
41. Helbig JH, Uldum SA, Bernander S et al. Clinical utility of urinary antigen detection for diagnosis of community-acquired, travel-associated, and nosocomial legionnaires' disease. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41(2), 838-840 (2003).
42. Plouffe JF, File TM Jr, Breiman RF et al. Reevaluation of the definition of Legionnaires' disease: use of the urinary antigen assay. Community Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20(5), 1286-1291 (1995).
43. Tronel H, Hartemann P. Overview of diagnostic and detection methods for legionellosis and Legionella spp. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 48(6), 653-656 (2009).
44. Murdoch DR, Walford EJ, Jennings LC et al. Use of the polymerase chain reaction to detect Legionella DNA in urine and serum samples from patients with pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23(3), 475-480 (1996).
45. Ramirez JA, Ahkee S, Tolentino A, Miller RD, Summersgill JT. Diagnosis of Legionella pneumophila, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, or Chlamydia pneumoniae lower respiratory infection using the polymerase chain reaction on a single throat swab specimen. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 24(1), 7-14 (1996).
46. Heath CH, Grove DI, Looke DF. Delay in appropriate therapy of Legionella pneumonia associated with increased mortality. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 15(4), 286-290 (1996).
47. Fraser DW, Wachsmuth I, Bopp C, Feeley JC, Tsai TF. Antibiotic treatment of guinea-pigs infected with agent of Legionnaires' disease. Lancet 1(8057), 175-178 (1978).
48. Kirby BD, Snyder KM, Meyer RD, Finegold SM. Legionnaires' disease: report of sixty-five nosocomially acquired cases of review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 59(3), 188-205 (1980).
49. Daisy JA, Benson CE, McKitrick J, Friedman HM. Intracellular replication of Legionella pneumophila. J. Infect. Dis. 143(3), 460-464 (1981).
50. Horwitz MA, Silverstein SC. Legionnaires' disease bacterium (Legionella pneumophila) multiples intracellularly in human monocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 66(3), 441-450 (1980).
51. Horwitz MA, Silverstein SC. Intracellular multiplication of Legionnaires' disease bacteria (Legionella pneumophila) in human monocytes is reversibly inhibited by erythromycin and rifampin. J. Clin. Invest. 71(1), 15-26 (1983).
52. Wong MC, Ewing EP Jr, Callaway CS, Peacock WL Jr. Intracellular multiplication of Legionella pneumophila in cultured human embryonic lung fibroblasts. Infect. Immun. 28(3), 1014-1018 (1980).
53. Fitzgeorge RB, Gibson DH, Jepras R, Baskerville A. Studies on ciprofloxacin therapy of experimental Legionnaires' disease. J. Infect. 10(3), 194-203 (1985). (Pubitemid 15031742)
54. Greenwood D, Laverick A. Activities of newer quinolones against Legionella group organisms. Lancet 2(8344), 279-280 (1983).
55. Unertl KE, Lenhart FP, Forst H et al. Ciprofloxacin in the treatment of legionellosis in critically ill patients including those cases unresponsive to erythromycin. Am. J. Med. 87(5A), S128-S131 (1989).
56. Baltch AL, Smith RP, Franke MA, Michelsen PB. Antibacterial effects of levofloxacin, erythromycin, and rifampin in a human monocyte system against Legionella pneumophila. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42(12), 3153-3156 (1998).
57. Baltch AL, Bopp LH, Smith RP, Michelsen PB, Ritz WJ. Antibacterial activities of gemifloxacin, levofloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin and erythromycin against intracellular Legionella pneumophila and Legionella micdadei in human monocytes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 56(1), 104-109 (2005).
58. Fitzgeorge RB. The effect of antibiotics on the growth of Legionella pneumophila in guinea-pig alveolar phagocytes infected in vivo by an aerosol. J. Infect. 10(3), 189-193 (1985).
59. Fitzgeorge RB, Featherstone AS, Baskerville A. The effect of ofloxacin on the intracellular growth of Legionella pneumophila in guinea pig alveolar phagocytes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 22(Suppl. C), 53-57 (1988).
60. Havlichek D, Saravolatz L, Pohlod D. Effect of quinolones and other antimicrobial agents on cell-associated Legionella pneumophila. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 31(10), 1529-1534 (1987).
61. Kitsukawa K, Hara J, Saito A. Inhibition of Legionella pneumophila in guinea pig peritoneal macrophages by new quinolone, macrolide and other antimicrobial agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 27(3), 343-353 (1991).
62. Pedro-Botet L, Yu VL. Legionella: macrolides or quinolones? Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12(Suppl. 3), 25-30 (2006).
63. Stout JE, Arnold B, Yu VL. Comparative activity of ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, levofloxacin, and erythromycin against Legionella species by broth microdilution and intracellular susceptibility testing in HL-60 cells. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 30(1), 37-43 (1998). (Pubitemid 28070134)
64. Stout JE, Sens K, Mietzner S, Obman A, Yu VL. Comparative activity of quinolones, macrolides and ketolides against Legionella species using in vitro broth dilution and intracellular susceptibility testing. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 25(4), 302-307 (2005).
65. Edelstein PH, Edelstein MA. In vitro activity of azithromycin against clinical isolates of Legionella species. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35(1), 180-181 (1991).
66. Edelstein PH, Shinzato T, Doyle E, Edelstein MA. In vitro activity of gemifloxacin (SB-265805, LB20304a) against Legionella pneumophila and its pharmacokinetics in guinea pigs with L. pneumophila pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45(8), 2204-2209 (2001). (Pubitemid 32664457)
67. Saito A, Koga H, Shigeno H et al. The antimicrobial activity of ciprofloxacin against Legionella species and the treatment of experimental Legionella pneumonia in guinea pigs. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 18(2), 251-260 (1986).
68. Blazquez Garrido RM, Espinosa Parra FJ, Alemany FL et al. Antimicrobial chemotherapy for Legionnaires disease: levofloxacin versus macrolides. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40(6), 800-806 (2005).
69. Mykietiuk A, Carratala J, Fernandez- Sabe N et al. Clinical outcomes for hospitalized patients with Legionella pneumonia in the antigenuria era: the influence of levofloxacin therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40(6), 794-799 (2005).
70. Sabria M, Pedro-Botet ML, Gomez J et al. Fluoroquinolones vs macrolides in the treatment of Legionnaires disease. Chest 128(3), 1401-1405 (2005).
71. Haranaga S, Tateyama M, Higa F et al. Intravenous ciprofloxacin versus erythromycin in the treatment of Legionella pneumonia. Intern. Med. 46(7), 353-357 (2007).
72. Yu VL, Greenberg RN, Zadeikis N et al. Levofloxacin efficacy in the treatment of community-acquired legionellosis. Chest 125(6), 2135-2139 (2004).
73. Grau S, Antonio JM, Ribes E, Salvado M, Garces JM, Garau J. Impact of rifampicin addition to clarithromycin in Legionella pneumophila pneumonia. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 28(3), 249-252 (2006).
74. Martin SJ, Pendland SL, Chen C, Schreckenberger P, Danziger LH. In vitro synergy testing of macrolide-quinolone combinations against 41 clinical isolates of Legionella. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40(6), 1419-1421 (1996).
75. Nakamura S, Yanagihara K, Izumikawa K et al. The clinical efficacy of fluoroquinolone and macrolide combination therapy compared with single-agent therapy against community-acquired pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila. J. Infect. 59(3), 222-224 (2009).
76. Eaton D, Meiklejohn G, van Herick W. Studies on the etiology of primary atypical pneumonia: a filterable agent transmissible to cotton rats, hamsters, and chick embryos. J. Exp. Med. 79(6), 649-668 (1944).
77. Atkinson TP, Balish MF, Waites KB. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathogenesis and laboratory detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 32(6), 956-973 (2008).
78. Waites KB, Talkington DF. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its role as a human pathogen. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17(4), 697-728 (2004).
79. Dallo SF, Baseman JB. Intracellular DNA replication and long-term survival of pathogenic mycoplasmas. Microb. Pathog. 29(5), 301-309 (2000).
80. Falguera M, Sacristan O, Nogues A et al. Nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia: correlation between cause and severity or comorbidity. Arch. Intern. Med. 161(15), 1866-1872 (2001).
81. Korppi M, Heiskanen-Kosma T, Kleemola M. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia in children caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae: serological results of a prospective, population-based study in primary health care. Respirology 9(1), 109-114 (2004).
82. Marston BJ, Plouffe JF, File TM Jr et al. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Results of a population-based active surveillance Study in Ohio. The Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group. Arch. Intern. Med. 157(15), 1709-1718 (1997).
83. Sliman JA, Metzgar D, Asseff DC, Coon RG, Faix DJ, Lizewski S. Outbreak of acute respiratory disease caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae on board a deployed U.S. navy ship. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47(12), 4121-4123 (2009).
84. Walter ND, Grant GB, Bandy U et al. Community outbreak of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection: school-based cluster of neurologic disease associated with household transmission of respiratory illness. J. Infect. Dis. 198(9), 1365-1374 (2008).
85. De Vos M, Van der Straeten M, Druyts E. Mycoplasma pneumoniae as a cause of pneumonia, lung abscess and pleural effusion: a case report. Infection 4(1 Suppl.), 58-59 (1976).
86. Marrie TJ. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia requiring hospitalization, with emphasis on infection in the elderly. Arch. Intern. Med. 153(4), 488-494 (1993).
87. Siegler DI. Lung abscess associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Br. J. Dis. Chest 67(2), 123-127 (1973).
88. O'Sullivan MV, Isbel NM, Johnson DW et al. Disseminated pyogenic Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in a renal transplant recipient, detected by broad-range polymerase chain reaction. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39(9), e98-e99 (2004).
89. Ozaki T, Nishimura N, Ahn J et al. Utility of a rapid diagnosis kit for Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in children, and the antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates. J. Infect. Chemother. 13(4), 204-207 (2007).
90. Talkington DF, Shott S, Fallon MT, Schwartz SB, Thacker WL. Analysis of eight commercial enzyme immunoassay tests for detection of antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in human serum. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 11(5), 862-867 (2004).
91. Csango PA, Pedersen JE, Hess RD. Comparison of four Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM-, IgG- and IgA-specific enzyme immunoassays in blood donors and patients. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 10(12), 1094-1098 (2004).
92. Michelow IC, Olsen K, Lozano J, Duffy LB, McCracken GH, Hardy RD. Diagnostic utility and clinical significance of naso- and oropharyngeal samples used in a PCR assay to diagnose Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in children with community-acquired pneumonia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42(7), 3339-3341 (2004).
93. Pitcher D, Chalker VJ, Sheppard C, George RC, Harrison TG. Real-time detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory samples with an internal processing control. J. Med. Microbiol. 55(Pt 2), 149-155 (2006).
94. Templeton KE, Scheltinga SA, Graffelman AW et al. Comparison and evaluation of real-time PCR, real-time nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, conventional PCR, and serology for diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41(9), 4366-4371 (2003).
95. Raty R, Ronkko E, Kleemola M. Sample type is crucial to the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia by PCR. J. Med. Microbiol. 54(Pt 3), 287-291 (2005).
96. File TM Jr, Segreti J, Dunbar L et al. A multicenter, randomized study comparing the efficacy and safety of intravenous and/ or oral levofloxacin versus ceftriaxone and/ or cefuroxime axetil in treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41(9), 1965-1972 (1997).
97. Finch R, Schurmann D, Collins O et al. Randomized controlled trial of sequential intravenous (i.v.) and oral moxifloxacin compared with sequential i.v. and oral co-amoxiclav with or without clarithromycin in patients with community-acquired pneumonia requiring initial parenteral treatment. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46(6), 1746-1754 (2002).
98. Gavranich JB, Chang AB. Antibiotics for community acquired lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3, CD004875 (2005).
99. Harris JA, Kolokathis A, Campbell M, Cassell GH, Hammerschlag MR. Safety and efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17(10), 865-871 (1998).
100. Kogan R, Martinez MA, Rubilar L et al. Comparative randomized trial of azithromycin versus erythromycin and amoxicillin for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 35(2), 91-98 (2003).
101. Wubbel L, Muniz L, Ahmed A et al. Etiology and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in ambulatory children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 18(2), 98-104 (1999).
102. Ishida K, Kaku M, Irifune K et al. In vitro and in vivo activities of macrolides against Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38(4), 790-798 (1994). (Pubitemid 24114020)
103. Block S, Hedrick J, Hammerschlag MR, Cassell GH, Craft JC. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in pediatric community-acquired pneumonia: comparative efficacy and safety of clarithromycin vs. erythromycin ethylsuccinate. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 14(6), 471-477 (1995).
104. Cassell GH, Drnec J, Waites KB et al. Efficacy of clarithromycin against Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 27(Suppl. A), 47-59 (1991).
105. Schonwald S, Gunjaca M, Kolacny- Babic L, Car V, Gosev M. Comparison of azithromycin and erythromycin in the treatment of atypical pneumonias. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 25(Suppl. A), 123-126 (1990).
106. Schonwald S, Skerk V, Petricevic I, Car V, Majerus-Misic L, Gunjaca M. Comparison of three-day and five-day courses of azithromycin in the treatment of atypical pneumonia. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 10(10), 877-880 (1991).
107. Schonwald S, Kuzman I, Oreskovic K et al. Azithromycin: single 1.5 g dose in the treatment of patients with atypical pneumonia syndrome - a randomized study. Infection 27(3), 198-202 (1999).
108. Niitu Y, Hasegawa S, Suetake T, Kubota H, Komatsu S, Horikawa M. Resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae to erythromycin and other antibiotics. J. Pediatr. 76(3), 438-443 (1970).
109. Stopler T, Gerichter CB, Branski D. Antibiotic-resistant mutants of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 16(3), 169-173 (1980).
110. Stopler T, Branski D. Resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae to macrolides, lincomycin and streptogramin B. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 18(3), 359-364 (1986).
111. Matsuoka M, Narita M, Okazaki N et al. Characterization and molecular analysis of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical isolates obtained in Japan. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(12), 4624-4630 (2004).
112. Morozumi M, Hasegawa K, Kobayashi R et al. Emergence of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae with a 23S rRNA gene mutation. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(6), 2302-2306 (2005).
113. Morozumi M, Iwata S, Hasegawa K et al. Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(1), 348-350 (2008).
114. Suzuki S, Yamazaki T, Narita M et al. Clinical evaluation of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50(2), 709-712 (2006).
115. Pereyre S, Charron A, Renaudin H, Bebear C, Bebear CM. First report of macrolide-resistant strains and description of a novel nucleotide sequence variation in the P1 adhesin gene in Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical strains isolated in France over 12 years. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45(11), 3534-3539 (2007).
116. Critchley IA, Jones ME, Heinze PD et al. In vitro activity of levofloxacin against contemporary clinical isolates of Legionella pneumophila, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae from North America and Europe. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 8(4), 214-221 (2002).
117. Wolff BJ, Thacker WL, Schwartz SB, Winchell JM. Detection of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae by real-time PCR and high-resolution melt analysis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(10), 3542-3549 (2008).
118. File TM Jr, Schlemmer B, Garau J, Cupo M, Young C. Efficacy and safety of gemifloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind comparison with trovafloxacin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 48(1), 67-74 (2001).
119. File TM Jr, Mandell LA, Tillotson G, Kostov K, Georgiev O. Gemifloxacin once daily for 5 days versus 7 days for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized, multicentre, double-blind study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 60(1), 112-120 (2007). (Pubitemid 47073284)
120. Patel T, Pearl J, Williams J, Haverstock D, Church D. Efficacy and safety of ten day moxifloxacin 400 mg once daily in the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Community Acquired Pneumonia Study Group. Respir. Med. 94(2), 97-105 (2000).
121. Bebear CM, Bove JM, Bebear C, Renaudin J. Characterization of Mycoplasma hominis mutations involved in resistance to fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41(2), 269-273 (1997).
122. Bebear CM, Renaudin H, Charron A, Bove JM, Bebear C, Renaudin J. Alterations in topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase in quinolone-resistant mutants of Mycoplasma hominis obtained in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42(9), 2304-2311 (1998).
123. Gruson D, Pereyre S, Renaudin H, Charron A, Bebear C, Bebear CM. In vitro development of resistance to six and four fluoroquinolones in Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma hominis, respectively. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(3), 1190-1193 (2005).
124. Bebear CM, Renaudin J, Charron A et al. Mutations in the gyrA, parC, and parE genes associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Mycoplasma hominis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43(4), 954-956 (1999).
125. Carbon C, Moola S, Velancsics I, Leroy B, Rangaraju M, Decosta P. Telithromycin 800 mg once daily for seven to ten days is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for community-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9(7), 691-703 (2003).
126. Mathers DL, Hassman J, Tellier G. Efficacy and tolerability of once-daily oral telithromycin compared with clarithromycin for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin. Ther. 26(1), 48-62 (2004).
127. Pullman J, Champlin J, Vrooman PS Jr. Efficacy and tolerability of once-daily oral therapy with telithromycin compared with trovafloxacin for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 57(5), 377-384 (2003).
128. Tellier G, Niederman MS, Nusrat R, Patel M, Lavin B. Clinical and bacteriological efficacy and safety of 5 and 7 day regimens of telithromycin once daily compared with a 10 day regimen of clarithromycin twice daily in patients with mild to moderate community-acquired pneumonia. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 54(2), 515-523 (2004).
129. Grayston JT, Kuo CC, Wang SP, Altman J. A new Chlamydia psittaci strain, TWAR, isolated in acute respiratory tract infections. N. Engl. J. Med. 315(3), 161-168 (1986).
130. Saikku P, Wang SP, Kleemola M, Brander E, Rusanen E, Grayston JT. An epidemic of mild pneumonia due to an unusual strain of Chlamydia psittaci. J. Infect. Dis. 151(5), 832-839 (1985).
131. Dwyer RS, Treharne JD, Jones BR, Herring J. Chlamydial infection. Results of micro-immunofluorescence tests for the detection of type-specific antibody in certain chlamydial infections. Br. J. Vener. Dis. 48(6), 452-459 (1972).
132. Grayston JT, Kuo CC, Campbell LA. Chlamydia pneumoniae sp. nov. for Chlamydia sp. strain TWAR. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 39, 88-90 (1989).
133. Blasi F, Tarsia P, Aliberti S. Chlamydophila pneumoniae. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15(1), 29-35 (2009).
134. Kumar S, Hammerschlag MR. Acute respiratory infection due to Chlamydia pneumoniae: current status of diagnostic methods. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(4), 568-576 (2007).
135. Marrie TJ, Peeling RW, Reid T, De Carolis E. Chlamydia species as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia in Canada. Eur. Respir. J. 21(5), 779-784 (2003).
136. Hammerschlag MR, Chirgwin K et al. Persistent infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae following acute respiratory illness. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14(1), 178-182 (1992).
137. Comandini UV, Maggi P, Santopadre P, Monno R, Angarano G, Vullo V. Chlamydia pneumoniae respiratory infections among patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16(10), 720-726 (1997).
138. Nakashima K, Tanaka T, Kramer MH et al. Outbreak of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in a Japanese nursing home, 1999-2000. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 27(11), 1171-1177 (2006).
139. Balis E, Boufas A, Iliopoulos I, Legakis NJ, Zerva L. Severe community-acquired pneumonia with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure due to primary infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae in a previously healthy adult. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(12), e155-e157 (2003).
140. Kauppinen MT, Saikku P, Kujala P, Herva E, Syrjala H. Clinical picture of community-acquired Chlamydia pneumoniae pneumonia requiring hospital treatment: a comparison between chlamydial and pneumococcal pneumonia. Thorax 51(2), 185-189 (1996).
141. Roblin PM, Dumornay W, Hammerschlag MR. Use of HEp-2 cells for improved isolation and passage of Chlamydia pneumoniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30(8), 1968-1971 (1992).
142. Dowell SF, Peeling RW, Boman J et al. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (Canada). Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(4), 492-503 (2001).
143. Chirgwin K, Roblin PM, Hammerschlag MR. In vitro susceptibilities of Chlamydia pneumoniae (Chlamydia sp. strain TWAR). Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33(9), 1634-1635 (1989).
144. Hammerschlag MR, Qumei KK, Roblin PM. In vitro activities of azithromycin, clarithromycin, L-ofloxacin, and other antibiotics against Chlamydia pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36(7), 1573-1574 (1992).
145. Hammerschlag MR, Hyman CL, Roblin PM. In vitro activities of five quinolones against Chlamydia pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36(3), 682-683 (1992).
146. Chien SM, Pichotta P, Siepman N, Chan CK. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study comparing clarithromycin with erythromycin. Canada-Sweden Clarithromycin-Pneumonia Study Group. Chest 103(3), 697-701 (1993).
147. Hammerschlag MR, Roblin PM. Microbiological efficacy of levofloxacin for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia due to Chlamydia pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44(5), 1409 (2000).
148. Roblin PM, Hammerschlag MR. Microbiologic efficacy of azithromycin and susceptibilities to azithromycin of isolates of Chlamydia pneumoniae from adults and children with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42(1), 194-196 (1998).
149. Hammerschlag MR. Advances in the management of Chlamydia pneumoniae infections. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 1(3), 493-503 (2003).
150. Roblin PM, Montalban G, Hammerschlag MR. Susceptibilities to clarithromycin and erythromycin of isolates of Chlamydia pneumoniae from children with pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38(7), 1588-1589 (1994).
151. Ritter J. Beitrag zur Frage des Pneumotyphus [eine Hausepidemie in Uster (Schweiz) betreffend]. Deutsches Archiv für Klinische Medizin 25, 53-96 (1880).
152. Beeckman DS, Vanrompay DC. Zoonotic Chlamydophila psittaci infections from a clinical perspective. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15(1), 11-17 (2009).
153. Harkinezhad T, Geens T, Vanrompay D. Chlamydophila psittaci infections in birds: a review with emphasis on zoonotic consequences. Vet. Microbiol. 135(1-2), 68-77 (2009).
154. Gaede W, Reckling KF, Dresenkamp B et al. Chlamydophila psittaci infections in humans during an outbreak of psittacosis from poultry in Germany. Zoonoses Public Health 55(4), 184-188 (2008).
155. Laroucau K, De Barbeyrac B, Vorimore F et al. Chlamydial infections in duck farms associated with human cases of psittacosis in France. Vet. Microbiol. 135(1-2), 82-89 (2009).
156. Verminnen K, Duquenne B, De Keukeleire D et al. Evaluation of a Chlamydophila psittaci infection diagnostic platform for zoonotic risk assessment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(1), 281-285 (2008).
157. Hughes C, Maharg P, Rosario P et al. Possible nosocomial transmission of psittacosis. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 18(3), 165-168 (1997).
158. Barnes RC. Laboratory diagnosis of human chlamydial infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2(2), 119-136 (1989).
159. Haralambieva I, Iankov I, Petrov D, Ivanova R, Kamarinchev B, Mitov I. Cross-reaction between the genus-specific lipopolysaccharide antigen of Chlamydia spp. and the lipopolysaccharides of Porphyromonas gingivalis, Escherichia coli O119 and Salmonella newington: implications for diagnosis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 41(3), 99-106 (2001).
160. Messmer TO, Skelton SK, Moroney JF, Daugharty H, Fields BS. Application of a nested, multiplex PCR to psittacosis outbreaks. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35(8), 2043-2046 (1997).
161. Van Loock M, Verminnen K, Messmer TO, Volckaert G, Goddeeris BM, Vanrompay D. Use of a nested PCR-enzyme immunoassay with an internal control to detect Chlamydophila psittaci in turkeys. BMC Infect. Dis. 5, 76 (2005).
162. Donati M, Rodriguez FM, Olmo A, D'Apote L, Cevenini R. Comparative in-vitro activity of moxifloxacin, minocycline and azithromycin against Chlamydia spp. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43(6), 825-827 (1999).
163. Greub G. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, an emerging agent of pneumonia. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15(1), 18-28 (2009).
164. Corsaro D, Greub G. Pathogenic potential of novel Chlamydiae and diagnostic approaches to infections due to these obligate intracellular bacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19(2), 283-297 (2006).
165. Greub G, Mege JL, Raoult D. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae enters and multiplies within human macrophages and induces their apoptosis [corrected]. Infect. Immun. 71(10), 5979-5985 (2003).
166. Greub G, Mege JL, Gorvel JP, Raoult D, Meresse S. Intracellular trafficking of Parachlamydia acanthamoebae. Cell. Microbiol. 7(4), 581-589 (2005).
167. Kahane S, Dvoskin B, Friedman MG. The role of monocyte/macrophages as vehicles of dissemination of Simkania negevensis: an in vitro simulation model. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 52(2), 219-227 (2008).
168. Casson N, Entenza JM, Borel N, Pospischil A, Greub G. Murine model of pneumonia caused by Parachlamydia acanthamoebae. Microb. Pathog. 45(2), 92-97 (2008).
169. Friedman MG, Galil A, Greenberg S, Kahane S. Seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to the chlamydia-like microorganism 'Simkania Z' by ELISA. Epidemiol. Infect. 122(1), 117-123 (1999).
170. Greenberg D, Banerji A, Friedman MG, Chiu CH, Kahane S. High rate of Simkania negevensis among Canadian inuit infants hospitalized with lower respiratory tract infections. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 35(8), 506-508 (2003).
171. Kumar S, Kohlhoff SA, Gelling M et al. Infection with Simkania negevensis in Brooklyn, New York. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 24(11), 989-992 (2005).
172. Fasoli L, Paldanius M, Don M et al. Simkania negevensis in community-acquired pneumonia in Italian children. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 40(3), 269-272 (2008).
173. Heiskanen-Kosma T, Paldanius M, Korppi M. Simkania negevensis may be a true cause of community acquired pneumonia in children. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 40(2), 127-130 (2008).
174. Lieberman D, Kahane S, Lieberman D, Friedman MG. Pneumonia with serological evidence of acute infection with the Chlamydia-like microorganism "Z". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 156(2 Pt 1), 578-582 (1997). (Pubitemid 27351998)
175. Nascimento-Carvalho CM, Cardoso MR, Paldanius M et al. Simkania negevensis infection among Brazilian children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. J. Infect. 58(3), 250-253 (2009).
176. Casson N, Posfay-Barbe KM, Gervaix A, Greub G. New diagnostic real-time PCR for specific detection of Parachlamydia acanthamoebae DNA in clinical samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(4), 1491-1493 (2008).
177. Marrie TJ, Raoult D, La Scola B, Birtles RJ, de Carolis E. Legionella-like and other amoebal pathogens as agents of community-acquired pneumonia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7(6), 1026-1029 (2001).
178. Casson N, Michel R, Muller KD, Aubert JD, Greub G. Protochlamydia naegleriophila as etiologic agent of pneumonia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14(1), 168-172 (2008).
179. Haider S, Collingro A, Walochnik J, Wagner M, Horn M. Chlamydia-like bacteria in respiratory samples of community-acquired pneumonia patients. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 281(2), 198-202 (2008).
180. Friedman MG, Dvoskin B, Kahane S. Infections with the chlamydia-like microorganism Simkania negevensis, a possible emerging pathogen. Microbes Infect. 5(11), 1013-1021 (2003).
181. Greub G, Berger P, Papazian L, Raoult D. Parachlamydiaceae as rare agents of pneumonia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9(6), 755-756 (2003).
182. Casson N, Greub G. Resistance of different Chlamydia-like organisms to quinolones and mutations in the quinoline resistance-determining region of the DNA gyrase A-and topoisomerase-encoding genes. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 27(6), 541-544 (2006).
183. Maurin M, Bryskier A, Raoult D. Antibiotic susceptibilities of Parachlamydia acanthamoeba in amoebae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46(9), 3065-3067 (2002).
184. Derrick EH. "Q" fever, a new fever entity: clinical features, diagnosis and laboratory investigation. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5(4), 790-800 (1983).
185. Baca OG, Paretsky D. Q fever and Coxiella burnetii: a model for host-parasite interactions. Microbiol. Rev. 47(2), 127-149 (1983).
186. Fishbein DB, Raoult D. A cluster of Coxiella burnetii infections associated with exposure to vaccinated goats and their unpasteurized dairy products. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 47(1), 35-40 (1992).
187. Harman JB. Q fever in Great Britain; clinical account of eight cases. Lancet 2(6588), 1028-1030 (1949).
188. Rolain JM, Gouriet F, Brouqui P et al. Concomitant or consecutive infection with Coxiella burnetii and tickborne diseases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40(1), 82-88 (2005).
189. Maurin M, Raoult D. Q fever. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12(4), 518-553 (1999).
190. Tissot Dupont H, Raoult D, Brouqui P et al. Epidemiologic features and clinical presentation of acute Q fever in hospitalized patients: 323 French cases. Am. J. Med. 93(4), 427-434 (1992).
191. Dupuis G, Petite J, Peter O, Vouilloz M. An important outbreak of human Q fever in a Swiss Alpine valley. Int. J. Epidemiol. 16(2), 282-287 (1987).
192. Schimmer B, Morroy G, Dijkstra F et al. Large ongoing Q fever outbreak in the south of The Netherlands, 2008. Euro. Surveill. 13(31), pii; 18939 (2008).
193. Marrie TJ. Coxiella burnetii pneumonia. Eur. Respir. J. 21(4), 713-719 (2003).
194. Oddo M, Jolidon RM, Peter O, Poli S, Cometta A. Q fever pneumonia complicated by acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 27(3), 615 (2001).
195. Schneeberger PM, Hermans MH, van Hannen EJ, Schellekens JJ, Leenders AC, Wever PC. Real-time PCR on serum samples is indispensable for early diagnosis of acute Q-fever. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 17(2), 286-290 (2009).
196. Yeaman MR, Mitscher LA, Baca OG. In vitro susceptibility of Coxiella burnetii to antibiotics, including several quinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 31(7), 1079-1084 (1987).
197. Caron F, Meurice JC, Ingrand P et al. Acute Q fever pneumonia: a review of 80 hospitalized patients. Chest 114(3), 808-813 (1998).
198. Perez-del-Molino A, Aguado JM, Riancho JA, Sampedro I, Matorras P, Gonzalez-Macias J. Erythromycin and the treatment of Coxiella burnetii pneumonia. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 28(3), 455-459 (1991).
199. Sobradillo V, Zalacain R, Capelastegui A, Uresandi F, Corral J. Antibiotic treatment in pneumonia due to Q fever. Thorax 47(4), 276-278 (1992).
200. Welti M, Jaton K, Altwegg M, Sahli R, Wenger A, Bille J. Development of a multiplex real-time quantitative PCR assay to detect Chlamydia pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila and Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory tract secretions. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 45(2), 85-95 (2003).
201. Grady R. Safety profile of quinolone antibiotics in the pediatric population. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22(12), 1128-1132 (2003).
202. Anderson KB, Tan JS, File TM Jr, DiPersio JR, Willey BM, Low DE. Emergence of levofloxacin-resistant pneumococci in immunocompromised adults after therapy for community-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(3), 376-381 (2003).
203. Davidson R, Cavalcanti R, Brunton JL et al. Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 346(10), 747-750 (2002).
204. Leibovitz E. The use of fluoroquinolones in children. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 18(1), 64-70 (2006).