Contrast-induced nephropathy: A contemporary and simplified review

Interventional Cardiology

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 233-242

  Akyuz, Sukru ^a   Ergelen, Mehmet ^b   Ergelen, Rabia ^c   Uyarel, Huseyin ^d,e  

^a Nusaybin State Hospital   (Turkey)

^b DR SIYAMI ERSEK THORACIC AND CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY TRAINING AND RESEARCH HOSPITAL   (Turkey)

^c MARMARA UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^d BALIKESIR UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^e NONE   (Turkey)

Author keywords

contrast agent; contrast induced nephropathy; interventional cardiology

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ASCORBIC ACID; BICARBONATE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CARBON DIOXIDE; CONTRAST MEDIUM; CREATININE; DIATRIZOATE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DOPAMINE; ENDOTHELIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; FENOLDOPAM; FUROSEMIDE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IODIXANOL; IOHEXOL; IOMEPROL; IONIC CONTRAST MEDIUM; IOPAMIDOL; IOPROMIDE; IOVERSOL; IOXAGLIC ACID; IOXILAN; MANNITOL; MEGLUMINE DIATRIZOATE PLUS SODIUM DIATRIZOATE; METFORMIN; NONIONIC CONTRAST MEDIUM; THEOPHYLLINE;

BLOOD VESSEL OCCLUSION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTRAST INDUCED NEPHROPATHY; HEART INFARCTION; HEMODIALYSIS; HEMOFILTRATION; HUMAN; HYDRATION; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY INJURY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; STROKE;

EID: 77954090810     PISSN: 17555302     EISSN: 17555310     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/ica.10.15     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. McCullough PA, Wolyn R, Rocher LL, Levin RN, O'Neill WW: Acute renal failure after coronary intervention:incidence, risk factors, and relationship to mortality. Am. J. Med. 103, 368-375 (1997).
2. Uyarel H, Cam N, Ergelen M et al.: Contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing primary angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction: incidence, a simple risk score, and prognosis. Arch. Med. Sci. 5, 550-558 (2009).
3. Rihal CS, Textor SC, Grill DE et al.: Incidence and prognostic importance of acute renal failure after percutaneous coronary intervention. Circulation 105, 2259-2264 (2002).
4. Barrett BJ, Parfrey PS: Clinical practice: preventing nephropathy induced by contrast medium. N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 379-386 (2006).
5. Gruberg L, Mintz GS, Mehran R et al.: The prognostic implications of further renal function deterioration within 48 hrs of interventional coronary procedures in patients with pre-existent chronic renal insuffciency J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 36(5), 1542-1548 (2000).
6. Rudnick M, Feldman H: Contrast-induced nephropathy: what are the true clinical consequences? Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 263-272 (2008).
7. Kingman JG Jr, Chantal V, Rouleau JR, Kingma I: Infuence of acute renal failure on coronary vasoregulation in dogs. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 1316-1324 (2006).
8. Hölscher B, Heitmeyer C, Fobker M, Breithardt G, Schaefer RM, Reinecke H: Predictors for contrast media-induced nephropathy and long-term survival: prospectively assessed data from the randomized controlled Dialysis-Versus-Diuresis (DVD) trial. Can. J. Cardiol. 24(11), 845-850 (2008).
9. Lindsay J, Apple S, Pinnow EE et al.: Percutaneous coronary intervention-associated nephropathy foreshadows increased risk of late adverse events in patients with normal baseline serum creatinine. Catheter Cardiovasc. Interv. 59, 338-343 (2003).
10. McCullough PA: Contrast-induced acute kidney injury. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51, 1419-1428 (2008).
11. Brosius FC, Hostetter TH, Kelepouris A et al.: AHA science advisory. Detection of chronic kidney disease in patients with or at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 114, 1-6 (2006).
12. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N, Roth D: A more accurate method to estimate glomerular fltration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modifcation of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann. Intern. Med. 130, 461-470 (1999).
13. Ellis JH, Cohan RH: Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: an overview. Radiol. Clin. N. Am. 47, 801-811 (2009).
14. Perlman RL, Finkelstein FO, Liu L et al.: Quality of life in chronic kidney disease (CKD): a cross-sectional analysis in the Renal Research Institute-CKD study. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 45(4), 658-666 (2005).
15. Rudnick MR, Berns JS, Cohen RM, Goldfarb S: Nephrotoxic risks of renal angiography: contrast-media associated nephrotoxicity and atheroembolism. A critical review. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 24, 713 (1994).
16. Byrd L, Sherman RL: Radiocontrast-induced acute renal failure: a clinical and pathophysiologic review. Medicine 58, 270-279 (1979).
17. Rudnick M, Laskey W, Aspelin P et al.: Nephrotoxicity of iodixanol versus iopamidol in patients with chronic kidney disease and diabetes mellitus undergoing coronary angiographic procedures. Am. Heart J. 158, 822-828 (2009).
18. Solomon RJ, Natarajan MK, Doucet S et al.: Cardiac Angiography in Renally Impaired Patients (CARE) study: a randomized double-blind trial of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease. Circulation 115, 3189-3196 (2007).
19. Feldkamp T, Baumgart D, Elsner M et al.: Nephrotoxicity of iso-osmolar versus low-osmolar contrast media is equal in low risk patients. Clin. Nephrol. 66, 322-330 (2006).
20. Barrett BJ, Katzberg RW, Thomsen HS et al.: Contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing computed tomography: a double-blind comparison of iodixanol and iopamidol. Invest. Radiol. 41, 815-821 (2006).
21. Kuhn MJ, Chen N, Sahani DV et al.: The PREDICT study: a randomized double-blind comparison of contrast-induced nephropathy after low-or isoosmolar contrast agent exposure. Am. J. Roentgenol. 191(1), 151-157 (2008).
22. Chuang FR, Chen TC, Wang IK et al.: Comparison of iodixanol and iohexol in patients undergoing intravenous pyelography: a prospective controlled study. Ren. Fail. 31(3), 181-188 (2009).
23. Hardiek KJ, Katholi RE, Robbs RS, Katholi CE: Renal effects of contrast media in diabetic patients undergoing diagnostic or interventional coronary angiography. J. Diabetes Complications 22(3), 171-177 (2008).
24. Mehran R, Nikolsky E, Kirtane AJ et al.: Ionic low-osmolar versus nonionic iso-osmolar contrast media to obviate worsening nephropathy after angioplasty in chronic renal failure patients: the ICON (Ionic Versus Non-ionic Contrast to Obviate Worsening Nephropathy after Angioplasty in Chronic Renal Failure Patients) study. Cardiovasc. Interv. 2(5), 415-421 (2009).
25. Juergens CP, Winter JP, Nguyen-Do P et al.: Nephrotoxic effects of iodixanol and iopromide in patients with abnormal renal function receiving N-acetylcysteine and hydration before coronary angiography and intervention: a randomized trial. Intern. Med. J. 39(1), 25-31 (2009).
26. Laskey W, Aspelin P, Davidson C et al.; DXV405 Study Group: Nephrotoxicity of iodixanol versus iopamidol in patients with chronic kidney disease and diabetes mellitus undergoing coronary angiographic procedures. Am. Heart J. 158(5), 822-828 (2009).
27. Wessely R, Koppara T, Bradaric C et al.: Contrast media and nephrotoxicity following coronary revascularization by angioplasty trial investigators. Choice of contrast medium in patients with impaired renal function undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Circ. Cardiovasc. Interv. 2(5), 430-437 (2009).
28. Jo SH, Youn TJ, Koo BK et al.: Renal toxicity evaluation and comparison between Visipaque™ (iodixanol) and Hexabrix™ (ioxaglate) in patients with renal insuffciency undergoing coronary angiography: the RECOVER study: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48, 924-930 (2006).
29. Aspelin P, Aubry P, Fransson SG, Strasser R, Willenbrock R, Berg KJ: Nephrotoxic effects in high-risk patients undergoing angiography. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 491-499 (2003).
30. Nguyen SA, Suranyi P, Ravenel JG et al.: Iso-osmolality versus low-osmolality iodinated contrast medium at intravenous contrast-enhanced CT: effect on kidney function. Radiology 248(1), 97-105 (2008).
31. Nie B, Cheng WJ, Li YF et al.: A prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial on the effcacy and cardiorenal safety of iodixanol vs. iopromide in patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing coronary angiography with or without percutaneous coronary intervention. Catheter Cardiovasc. Interv. 72(7), 958-965 (2008).
32. Thomsen HS, Morcos SK, Erley CM et al.; Investigators in the Abdominal Computed Tomography: IOMERON 400 Versus VISIPAQUE 320 Enhancement (ACTIVE) Study: Comparison of the effects on renal function of iomeprol-400 and iodixanol-320 in patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing abdominal computed tomography. Invest. Radiol. 43(3), 170-178 (2008).
33. Thomsen HS, Morcos SK: Risk of contrast-medium-induced nephropathy in high-risk patients undergoing MDCT-A pooled analysis of two randomized trials. Eur. Radiol. 19, 891-897 (2008).
34. Reed M, Meier P, Tamhane UU, Welch KB, Moscucci M, Gurm HS: The relative renal safety of iodixanol compared with low-osmolar contrast media: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2, 645-654 (2009).
35. Rudnick MR, Goldfarb S, Wexler L et al.: Nephrotoxicity of ionic and nonionic contrast media in 1196 patients: a randomized trial. Kidney Int. 47, 254 (1995).
36. Schwab SJ, Hlatky MA, Pieper KS et al.: Contrast nephrotoxicity: a randomized controlled trial of a nonionic and an ionic radiographic contrast agent. N. Engl. J. Med. 320, 149 (1989).
37. Moore RD, Steinberg EP, Rowe NR et al.: Nephrotoxicity of high-osmolality versus low-osmolality contrast media: randomized clinical trial. Radiology 182, 649 (1992).
38. Laskey WK, Jenkins C, Selzer F et al.: Volume-to-creatinine clearance ratio. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 50, 584-590 (2007).
39. Cigarroa RG, Lange RA, Williams RH, Hillis LD: Dosing of contrast material to prevent contrast nephropathy in patients with renal disease. Am. J. Med. 86, 649 (1989).
40. Mehran R, Aymong ED, Nikolsky E et al.: A simple risk score for prediction of contrast-induced nephropathy after percutaneous coronary intervention: development and initial validation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 1393-1399 (2004).
41. Freeman RV, O'Donnell M, Share D et al.: Nephropathy requiring dialysis after percutaneous coronary intervention and the critical role of an adjusted contrast dose. Am. J. Cardiol. 90, 1068-1073 (2002).
42. Kane GC, Stanson AW, Kalnicka D et al.: Comparison between gadolinium and iodine contrast for percutaneous intervention in atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis: clinical outcomes. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 23, 1233-1240 (2008).
43. Thomsen HS: European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR) guidelines on the safe use of iodinated contrast media. Eur. J. Radiol. 60(3), 307-313 (2006).
44. Schieren G, Wirtz N, Altmeyer P, Rump LC, Weiner SM, Kreuter A: Nephrogenic systemic fbrosis a rapidly progressive disabling disease with limited therapeutic options. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 61, 868-874 (2009).
45. Liss P, Eklof H, Hellberg O et al.: Renal effects of CO2 and iodinated contrast media in patients undergoing renovascular intervention: a prospective, randomized study. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 16, 57 (2005).
46. 2 in quantities required for diagnostic imaging. Radiology 151, 405 (1984).
47. Wilson AJ, Boxer MM: Neurotoxicity of angiographic carbon dioxide in the cerebral vasculature. Invest. Radiol. 37, 542 (2002).
48. Hawkins IF, Cho KJ, Caridi JG: Carbon dioxide in angiography to reduce the risk of contrast-induced nephropathy. Radiol. Clin. N. Am. 47, 813-825 (2009).
49. Reddan DN, Klassen PS: Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk: Time to focus on therapy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 13, 2415-2416 (2002).
50. Ozcan EE, Guneri S, Akdeniz B et al.: Sodium bicarbonate, N-acetylcysteine, and saline for prevention of radiocontrastinduced nephropathy: a comparison of 3 regimens for protecting contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing coronary procedures: a single-center prospective controlled trial. Am. Heart J. 154, 539-544 (2007).
51. Recio-Mayoral A, Chaparro M, Prado B et al.: The renoprotective effect of hydration with sodium bicarbonate plus N-acetylcysteine in patients undergoing emergency percutaneous coronary intervention: the RENO Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 1283-1288 (2007).
52. Briguori C, Airoldi F, D'Andrea D et al.: Renal Insuffciency Following Contrast Media Administration Trial (REMEDIAL): a randomized comparison of 3 preventive strategies. Circulation 115, 1211-1217 (2007).
53. Masuda M, Yamada T, Mine T et al.: Comparison of usefulness of sodium bicarbonate versus sodium chloride to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing an emergent coronary procedure. Am. J. Cardiol. 100, 781-786 (2007).
54. Merten GJ, Burgess WP, Gray LV et al.: Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291, 2328-2334 (2004).
55. Vasheghani-Farahani A, Sadigh G, Kassaian SE et al.: Sodium bicarbonate plus isotonic saline versus saline for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing coronary angiography: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 54, 610-618 (2009).
56. Bartholmai BJ, Williams AW, Cha SS, Pfueger A, McDonald FS: Sodium bicarbonate is associated with an increased incidence of contrast nephropathy: a retrospective cohort study of 7977 patients at Mayo Clinic. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 10-18 (2008).
57. Retrospective study that demonstrated nonsuperiority of sodium bicarbonate, contrary to all prospective studies that showed the superiority of sodium bicarbonate to sodium chloride. However, the high number of patients is remarkable.
58. Zoungas S, Ninomiya T, Huxley R et al.: Systematic review: sodium bicarbonate treatment regimens for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Ann. Intern. Med. 151(9), 631-638 (2009).
59. Meier P, Ko DT, Tamura A, Tamhane U, Gurm HS: Sodium bicarbonate-based hydration prevents contrast-induced nephropathy: a meta-analysis. BMC Med. 7, 23 (2009).
60. Kanbay M, Covic A, Coca SG, Turgut F, Akcay A, Parikh CR: Sodium bicarbonate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a meta-analysis of 17 randomized trials. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 41(3), 617-627 (2009).
61. Joannidis M, Schmid M, Wiedermann CJ: Prevention of contrast media-induced nephropathy by isotonic sodium bicarbonate: a meta-analysis. Wien Klin. Wochenschr. 120(23-24), 742-748 (2008).
62. Navaneethan SD, Singh S,Appasamy S, Wing RE, Sehgal AR: Sodium bicarbonate therapy for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 53(4), 617-627 (2009).
63. Dussol B, Morange S, Loundoun A, Auquier P, Berland Y: A randomized trial of saline hydration to prevent contrast nephropathy in chronic renal disease patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 21, 2120-2126 (2006).
64. Krasuski RA, Beard BM, Geoghagan JD, Thompson CM, Guidera SA: Optimal timing of hydration to erase contrast-associated nephropathy: the OTHER CAN study. J. Invasive Cardiol. 15, 699-702 (2003).
65. Trivedi HS, Moore H, Nasr S et al.: A randomized prospective trial to assess the role of saline hydration on the development of contrast nephrotoxicity. Nephron Clin. Pract. 93, 29-34 (2003).
66. Mueller C, Buerkle G, Buettner HJ et al.: Prevention of contrast media-associated nephropathy: randomized comparison of 2 hydration regimens in 1620 patients undergoing coronary angioplasty. Arch. Intern. Med. 162, 329-336 (2002).
67. Marenzi G, Assanelli E, Marana I et al.: N-acetylcysteine and contrast-induced nephropathy in primary angioplasty. N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 2773-2782 (2006).
68. Ochoa A, Pellizzon G, Addala S et al.: Abbreviated dosing of N-acetylcysteine prevents contrast-induced nephropathy after elective and urgent coronary angiography and intervention. J. Interv. Cardiol. 17, 159-165 (2004).
69. Baker CS, Wragg A, Kumar S, De Palma R, Baker LR, Knight CJ: A rapid protocol for the prevention of contrast-induced renal dysfunction: the RAPPID study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 41, 2114-2118 (2003).
70. Kay J, Chow WH, Chan TM et al.: Acetylcysteine for prevention of acute deterioration of renal function following elective coronary angiography and intervention: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289, 553-558 (2003).
71. Shyu KG, Cheng JJ, Kuan P: Acetylcysteine protects against acute renal damage in patients with abnormal renal function undergoing a coronary procedure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 40, 1383-1388 (2002).
72. Diaz-Sandoval LJ, Kosowsky BD, Losordo DW: Acetylcysteine to prevent angiography-related renal tissue injury (the APART trial). Am. J. Cardiol. 89, 356-358 (2002).
73. Tepel M, van der Giet M, Schwarzfeld C, Laufer U, Liermann D, Zidek W: Prevention of radiographic-contrast agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine. N. Engl. J. Med. 343, 180-184 (2000).
74. Carbonell N, Sanjuán R, Blasco M, Jordá A, Miguel A: N-acetylcysteine: short-term clinical benefts after coronary angiography in high-risk renal patients. Rev. Esp. Cardiol. 63(1), 12-19 (2010).
75. Coyle LC, Rodriguez A, Jeschke RE, Simon-Lee A, Abbott KC, Taylor AJ: Acetylcysteine In Diabetes (AID): a randomized study of acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast nephropathy in diabetics. Am. Heart J. 151, 1032 (2006).
76. Ferrario F, Barone MT, Landoni G et al.: Acetylcysteine and non-ionic isosmolar contrast-induced nephropathy-a randomized controlled study. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 24, 3103-3107 (2009).
77. Amini M, Salarifar M, Amirbaigloo A, Masoudkabir F, Esfahani F: N-acetylcysteine does not prevent contrast-induced nephropathy after cardiac catheterization in patients with diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease: a randomized clinical trial. Trials 10, 45-51 (2009).
78. Poletti PA, Saudan P, Platon A et al.: IV N-acetylcysteine and emergency CT: use of serum creatinine and cystatin C as markers of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity. Am. J. Roentgenol. 189, 687-692 (2007).
79. Seyon RA, Jensen LA, Ferguson IA, Williams RG: Effcacy of N-acetylcysteine and hydration versus placebo and hydration in decreasing contrast-induced renal dysfunction in patients undergoing coronary angiography with or without concomitant percutaneous coronary intervention. Heart Lung 36, 195-204 (2007).
80. Carbonell N, Blasco M, Sanjuan R et al.: Intravenous N-acetylcysteine for preventing contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized trial. Int. J. Cardiol. 115, 57-62 (2007).
81. Staniloae CS, Doucet S, Sharma SK et al.: N-acetylcysteine added to volume expansion with sodium bicarbonate does not further prevent contrast-induced nephropathy: results from the cardiac angiography in renally impaired patients study. J. Interv. Cardiol. 22, 261-265 (2009).
82. Reinecke H, Fobker M, Wellmann J et al.: A randomized controlled trial comparing hydration therapy to additional hemodialysis or N-acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast medium-induced nephropathy: the Dialysis-Versus- Diuresis (DVD) Trial. Clin. Res. Cardiol. 96, 130-139 (2007).
83. Briguori C, Colombo A, Violante A et al.: Standard vs double dose of N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast agent associated nephrotoxicity. Eur. Heart J. 25, 206-211 (2004).
84. Rashid ST, Salman M, Myint F et al.: Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in vascular patients undergoing angiography: a randomized controlled trial of intravenous N-acetylcysteine. J. Vasc. Surg. 40, 1136-1141 (2004).
85. Fung JW, Szeto CC, Chan WW et al.: Effect of N-acetylcysteinefor prevention of contrast nephropathy in patients with moderate to severe renal insuffciency: a randomized trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 43, 801-808 (2004).
86. Boccalandro F, Amhad M, Smalling RW, Sdringola S: Oral N-acetylcysteine does not protect renal function from moderate to high doses of intravenous radiographic contrast. Catheter Cardiovasc. Interv. 58, 336-341 (2003).
87. Goldenberg I, Schecter M, Matetzky S et al.: Oral N-acetylcysteine as an adjunct to saline hydration for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy following coronary angiography: a randomized controlled trial and review of the current literature. Eur. Heart J. 25, 212-218 (2004).
88. Kefer JM, Hanet CE, Boitte S, Wilmotte L, De Kock M: N-acetylcysteine, coronary procedure and prevention of contrast-induced worsening of renal function: which beneft for which patient? Acta Cardiol. 58, 555-560 (2003).
89. El Mahmoud R, Le Feuvre C, Le Quan Sang KH et al.: Absence of nephro-protective effect of N-acetylcysteine in patients with chronic renal disease investigated by coronary angiography. (Article in French). Arch. Mal. Coeur. Vaiss. 96, 1157-1161 (2003).
90. Oldemeyer JB, Biddle WP, Wurdeman RL, Mooss AN, Cichowski E, Hilleman DE: N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy after coronary angiography. Am. Heart J. 146, 23 (2003).
91. Durham JD, Caputo C, Dokko J et al.: A randomized controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast nephropathy in cardiac angiography. Kidney Int. 62, 2202-2207 (2002).
92. Vallero A, Cesano G, Pozzato M et al.: Contrast nephropathy in cardiac procedures: no advantages with prophylactic use of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) (Article in Italian). G. Ital. Nefrol. 19, 529-533 (2002).
93. Briguori C, Manganelli F, Scarpato P et al.: Acetylcysteine and contrast agent-associated nephrotoxicity. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 40, 298-303 (2002).
94. Allaqaband S, Tumuluri R, Malik AM et al.: Prospective randomized study of N-acetylcysteine, fenoldopam, and saline for prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy. Catheter Cardiovasc. Interv. 57, 279-283 (2002).
95. Amini M, Salarifar M, Amirbaigloo A, Masoudkabir F, Esfahani F: N-acetylcysteine does not prevent contrast-induced nephropathy after cardiac catheterization in patients with diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease: a randomized clinical trial. Trials 29, 10-45 (2009).
96. Ferrario F, Barone MT, Landoni G et al.: Acetylcysteine and non-ionic isosmolar contrast-induced nephropathy-a randomized controlled study. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 24(10), 3103 (2009).
97. Trivedi H, Daram S, Szabo A, Bartorelli AL, Marenzi G: High-dose N-acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Am. J. Med. 122, 874 (2009).
98. Brown JR, Block CA, Malenka DJ, O'Connor GT, Schoolwerth AC, Thompson CA: Sodium bicarbonate plus N-acetyl cysteine prophylaxis: a meta-analysis. Cardiovasc. Interv. 2(11), 1116-1124 (2009).
99. Kelly AM, Dwamena B, Cronin P, Bernstein SJ, Carlos RC: Meta-analysis: effectiveness of drugs for preventing contrast-induced nephropathy. Ann. Intern. Med. 148(4), 284-294 (2008).
100. H-Gonzales DA, Norsworthy KJ, Kern SJ et al.: A meta-analysis of N-acetyl cysteine in contrast-induced nephrotoxicity: unsupervised clustering to resolve heterogeneity. BMC Med. 5, 32 (2007).
101. ACT Trial Investigators: rationale, design, and baseline characteristics of the Acetylcystein for Contrast-Induced Nephropathy (ACT) Trial: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effcacy of acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Trials 10, 38 (2009).
102. Lee PT, Chou KJ, Liu CP et al.: Renal protection for coronary angiography in advanced renal disease patients by prophylactic hemodialysis: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 50, 1015-1020 (2007).
103. Vogt B, Ferrari P, Schonholzer C et al.: Prophylactic hemodialysis after radiocontrast media in patients with renal insuffciency is potentially harmful. Am. J. Med. 111, 692-698 (2001).
104. Marenzi G, Lauri G, Campodonico J et al.: Comparison of two hemofltration protocols for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in high-risk patients. Am. J. Med. 119, 155-162 (2006).
105. Marenzi G, Marana I, Lauri G et al.: The prevention of radiocontrast-agent-induced nephropathy by hemofltration. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 1333-1340 (2003).
106. Cirit M, Toprak O, Yesil M et al.: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors as a risk factor for contrast-induced nephropathy Nephron Clin. Pract. 104, 20-27 (2006).
107. Kiski D, Stepper W, Brand E, Breithardt G, Reinecke H: Impact of rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone blockade by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or AT1 blockers on frequency of contrast medium-induced nephropathy: a post-hoc analysis from the Dialysis-versus-Diuresis (DVD) trial. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant DOI:10.1093/ndt/gfp582 (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
108. Rosenstock JL, Bruno R, Kim JK et al.: The effect of withdrawal of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers prior to coronary anjiography on the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 40, 749-755 (2008).
109. Saudan P, Muller H, Feraille E, Martin PY, Mach F: Renin-angiotensin system blockade and contrast-induced renal toxicity. J. Nephrol. 21(5), 681-885 (2008).
110. Goergen SK, Rumbold G, Compton G, Harris C: Systematic review of current guidelines, and their evidence base, on risk of lactic acidosis after administration of contrast medium for patients receiving metformin. Radiology 254, 261-269 (2010).
111. Ng TM, Shurmur SW, Silver M et al.: Comparison of N-acetylcysteine and fenoldopam for preventing contrast-induced nephropathy (CAFCIN). Int. J. Cardiol. 109, 322-328 (2006).
112. Briguori C, Colombo A, Airoldi F et al.: N-Acetylcysteine versus fenoldopam mesylate to prevent contrast media-associated nephrotoxicity. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 762-765 (2004). (Pubitemid 39099569)
113. Stone GW, McCullough PA, Tumlin JA et al.: Fenoldopam mesylate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 290, 2284-2291 (2003).
114. Wang A, Holcslaw T, Bashore TM et al.: Exacerbation of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity by endothelin receptor antagonism. Kidney Int. 57, 1675-1680 (2000).
115. Gare M, Haviv YS, BeN-Yehuda A et al.: The renal effect ofow-dose dopamine in high-risk patients undergoing coronary angiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 34, 1682-1688 (1999).
116. Majumdar SR, Kjellstrand CM, Tymchak WJ, Hervas-Malo M, Taylor DA, Teo KK: Forced euvolemic diuresis with mannitol and furosemide for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with CKD undergoing coronary angiography: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 54, 602-609 (2009).
117. Bagshaw SM, Ghali WA: Theophylline for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. 165, 1087 (2005).
118. Anto HR, Chou SY, Porush JG, Shapiro WB: Infusion intravenous pyelography and renal function. Effects of hypertonic mannitol in patients with chronic renal insuffciency. Arch. Intern. Med. 141, 1652 (1981).
119. Xinwei J, Xianghua F, Jing Z et al.: Comparison of usefulness of simvastatin 20 mg versus 80 mg in preventing contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Am. J. Cardiol. 104, 519-524 (2009).
120. Patti G, Nusca A, Chello M et al.: Usefulness of statin pretreatment to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy and to improve long-term outcome in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Am. J. Cardiol. 101, 279-285 (2008).
121. Khanal S, Attallah N, Smith DE et al.: Statin therapy reduces contrast-induced nephropathy: an analysis of contemporary percutaneous interventions. Am. J. Med. 118, 843-849 (2005).
122. Bouzas-Mosquera A, Vazquez-Rodriguez JM, Calvino-Santos R et al.: Statin therapy and contrast-induced nephropathy after primary angioplasty. Int. J. Cardiol. 134, 430-431 (2009).
123. O'Driscoll G, Green D, Taylor RR: Simvastatin, an HMG-coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, improves endothelial function within 1 month. Circulation 95, 1126 (1997).
124. Koch JA, Plum J, Grabensee B et al.: Prostaglandin E1: a new media for the prevention of renal dysfunction in high risk patients caused by radiocontrast media? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 15, 43-49 (2000).
125. Yokomaku Y, Sugimoto T, Kume S et al.: Asial-erythropoietin prevents contrast-induced nephropathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 19, 321-328 (2008).
126. Spargias K, Alexopoulos E, Kyrzopoulos S et al.: Ascorbic acid prevents contrast-mediated nephropathy in patients with renal dysfunction undergoing coronary angiography or intervention. Circulation 110, 2837 (2004).
127. Boscheri A, Weinbrenner C, Botzek B, Reynen K, Kuhlisch E, Strasser RH: Failure of ascorbic acid to prevent contrast media induced nephropathy in patients with renal dysfunction. Clin. Nephrol. 68, 279-286 (2007).
128. Toprak O: What is the best defnition of contrast-induced nephropathy? Ren. Fail. 29, 387-388 (2007).