Submarine salt flows in the central Red Sea

Bulletin of the Geological Society of America

Volumn 122, Issue 5-6, 2010, Pages 701-713

  Mitchell, Neil C ^a   Ligi, Marco ^b   Ferrante, Valentina ^b   Bonatti, Enrico ^b,c   Rutter, Ernie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^b ISMAR CNR   (Italy)

^c SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONTINENTAL RIFTING; EVAPORITES; EXTENSIONAL FAULTS; HIGH RESOLUTION; MIOCENE; MULTIBEAM ECHO SOUNDER; OCEANIC BASIN; OCEANIC CRUST; RED SEA; SEAFLOOR SPREADING; SOUTH ATLANTIC; TRANSPORTING MATERIALS; VISCOUS GRAVITY FLOWS;

FLOORS; SEDIMENTATION;

PARALLEL FLOW;

BASIN EVOLUTION; ECHO SOUNDER; EVAPORITE; EXTENSIONAL TECTONICS; LINEAMENT; MIOCENE; MULTIBEAM SONAR; OCEAN BASIN; OCEANIC CRUST; RIFTING; SEAFLOOR SPREADING; SPREADING CENTER;

INDIAN OCEAN; RED SEA [INDIAN OCEAN];

EID: 77953738198     PISSN: 00167606     EISSN: 00167606     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1130/B26518.1     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Amery, G.B., 1969, Structure of Sigsbee scarp, Gulf of Mexico: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 53, p. 2480-2482.
2. Avedik, F., Geli, L., Gaulier, J.M., and Le Formal, J.P., 1988, Results from three refraction profiles in the northern Red Sea (above 25°N) recorded with an ocean bottom vertical seismic array: Tectonophysics, v. 153, p. 89-101, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90008-X.
3. Ballard, R.D., and van Andel, T.H., 1977, Morphology and tectonics of the inner rift valley at lat 36°50′N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 507-530, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<507:MATOTI>2.0.CO;2.
4. Bicknell, J.D., Macdonald, K.C., Miller, S.P., Longdale, P.F., and Becker, K., 1986, Tectonics of the Nereus Deep, Red Sea: A deep tow investigation of a site of initial rifting: Marine Geophysical Researches, v. 8, p. 131-148.
5. Bonatti, E., 1985, Punctiform initiation of seafloor spreading in the Red Sea during transition from a continental to an oceanic rift: Nature, v. 316, p. 33-37, doi: 10.1038/316033a0.
6. Bonatti, E., Colantoni, P., Della Vedova, B., and Taviani, M., 1984, Geology of the Red Sea transitional zone (22°N-25°N): Oceanologica Acta, v. 7, p. 385-398.
7. Carter, N.L., and Hansen, F.D., 1983, Creep of rocksalt: Tectonophysics, v. 92, p. 275-333, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(83)90200-7.
8. Casas, E., and Lowenstein, T.K., 1989, Diagenesis of saline pan halite: Comparison of petrographic features of modern, Quaternary and Permian halites: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 59, p. 724-739.
9. Chu, D., and Gordon, R.G., 1998, Current plate motions across the Red Sea: Geophysical Journal International, v. 135, p. 313-328, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-246X.1998.00658.x.
10. Cobbold, P.R., and Szatmari, P., 1991, Radial gravitational gliding on passive margins: Tectonophysics, v. 188, p. 249-289, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90459-6.
11. Cochran, J., 1983, A model for the development of the Red Sea: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 67, p. 41-69.
12. Cochran, J., 2005, Northern Red Sea: Nucleation of an oceanic spreading center within a continental rift: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 6, paper Q03006, doi: 10.1029/2004GC000826.
13. Cochran, J., and Martinez, F., 1988, Evidence from the northern Red Sea on the transition from continental to oceanic rifting: Tectonophysics, v. 153, p. 25-53, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90006-6.
14. Cochran, J., Martinez, F., Steckler, M.S., and Hobart, M.A., 1986, Conrad Deep: A northern Red Sea deep. Origin and implication for continental rifting: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 78, p. 18-32, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(86)90169-X.
15. Coleman, R.G., 1974, Geologic background of the Red Sea, in Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al. eds., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 813-819.
16. Contrucci, I., Matias, L., Moulin, M., Géli, L., Klingelhöfer, F., Nouzé, H., Aslanian, D., Olivet, J.-L., Réhault, J.-P., and Sibuet, J.-C., 2004, Deep structure of the West African continental margin (Congo, Zaïre, Angola), between 5°S and 8°S, from reflection/refraction seismics and gravity data: Geophysical Journal International, v. 158, p. 529-553, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02303.x.
17. Davies, D., and Tramontini, C., 1970, The deep structure of the Red Sea: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London, ser. A, v. 267, p. 181-189, doi: 10.1098/rsta.1970.0031.
18. Davis, E.E., and Lister, C.R.B., 1977, Tectonic structures on the Juan de Fuca Ridge: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 346-363, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<346:TSOTJD>2.0.CO;2.
19. Davison, I., 1999, Tectonics and hydrocarbon distribution along the Brazilian South Atlantic margin, in Cameron, N.R., Bate, R.H., and Clure, V.S., eds., The Oil and Gas Habitats of the South Atlantic: Geological Society of London Special Publication 153, p. 133-151.
20. Davison, I., 2007, Geology and tectonics of the South Atlantic Brazilian salt basins, in Ries, A.C., Butler, R.W.H., and Graham, R.H., eds., Deformation of the Continental Crust: The Legacy of Mike Coward: Geological Society of London Special Publication 272, p. 345-359.
21. Demercian, S., Szatmari, P., and Cobbold, P.R., 1993, Style and pattern of salt diapirs due to thin-skinned gravitational gliding, Campos and Santos Basins, offshore Brazil: Tectonophysics, v. 228, p. 393-433, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(93)90351-J.
22. de Moustier, C., and Kleinrock, M.C., 1986, Bathymetric artifacts in Sea Beam data: How to recognize them and what causes them: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 91, p. 3407-3424, doi: 10.1029/JB091iB03p03407.
23. de Silva, S.L., Self, S., Francis, P.W., Drake, R.E., and Ramirez, C.F., 1994, Effusive silicic volcanism in the Central Andes: The Chao dacite and other young lavas of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 17,805-17,825, doi: 10.1029/94JB00652.
24. Diegel, F.A., Schuster, D.C., Karlo, J.E., Shoup, R.C., and Tauvers, P.R., 1995, Cenozoic structural evolution and tectono-stratigraphic framework of the northern Gulf Coast continental margin, in Jackson, M.P.A., Roberts, D.G., and Snelson, S., eds., Salt Tectonics: A Global Perspective: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 65, p. 109-151.
25. Duval, B., Cramez, C., and Jackson, M.P.A., 1992, Raft tectonics in the Kwanza Basin, Angola: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 9, p. 389-404, doi: 10.1016/0264-8172(92)90050-O.
26. Egloff, F., Rihm, R., Makris, J., Izzeldin, Y.A., Bobsien, M., Meier, K., Junge, P., Noman, T., and Warsi, W., 1991, Contrasting structural styles of the eastern and western margins of the southern Red Sea: The 1988 SONNE experiment: Tectonophysics, v. 198, p. 329-353, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90159-P.
27. Ehrhardt, A., Hübscher, C., and Gajewski, D., 2005, Conrad Deep, northern Red Sea: Development of an early stage ocean deep within the axial depression: Tectonophysics, v. 411, p. 19-40, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2005.08.011.
28. Eissen, J.-P., Juteau, T., Joron, J.-L., Dúpre, B., Humler, E., and Al'Mukhamedov, A., 1989, Petrology and geochemistry of basalts from the Red Sea axial rift at 18° north: Journal of Petrology, v. 30, p. 791-839.
29. Emery, K.O., 1977, Structure and stratigraphy of divergent continental margins, in Yarborough, H., et al., eds., Geology of Continental Margins, Volume 5: Washington, D.C., American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. B1-B20.
30. Emery, K.O., and Uchupi, E., 1984, The Geology of the Atlantic Ocean: New York, Springer-Verlag, 1050 p., 23 charts.
31. Erickson, A.J., Von Herzen, R.P., Sclater, J.G., Girdler, R.W., Marshall, B.V., and Hyndman, R.H., 1975, Geothermal measurements in deep-sea drill holes: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 80, p. 2515-2528, doi: 10.1029/JB080i017p02515.
32. Evans, R., 1978, Origin and significance of evaporites in basins around Atlantic margin: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 62, p. 223-234.
33. Fletcher, R.C., Hudec, M.R., and Watson, I.A., 1995, Salt glacier and composite sediment-salt glacier models for the emplacement and early burial of allochthonous salt sheets, in Jackson, M.P.A., Roberts, D.G., and Snelson, S., eds., Salt Tectonics: A Global Perspective: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 65, p. 77-108.
34. Gaulier, J.M., LePichon, X., Lyberis, N., Avedik, F., Gely, L., Moretti, I., Deschamps, A., and Hafez, S., 1988, Seismic study of the crustal thickness, northern Red Sea and Gulf of Suez: Tectonophysics, v. 153, p. 55-88, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90007-8.
35. Gemmer, L., Beaumont, C., and Ings, S.J., 2005, Dynamic modelling of passive margin salt tectonics: Effects of water loading, sediment properties and sedimentation patterns: Basin Research, v. 17, p. 383-402, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2117.2005.00274.x.
36. Girdler, R.W., and Whitmarsh, R.B., 1974, Miocene evaporites in Red Sea cores, their relevance to the problem of the width and age of oceanic crust beneath the Red Sea, in Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 913-921.
37. Girdler, R.W., Erickson, A.J., and Von Herzen, R., 1974, Downhole temperature and shipboard thermal conductivity measurements above D/V Glomar Challenger in the Red Sea, in Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 879-886.
38. Goff, J.A., and Kleinrock, M.C., 1991, Quantitative comparison of bathymetric survey systems: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 18, p. 1253-1256, doi: 10.1029/91GL01558.
39. Gudmundsson, G.H., Raymond, C.F., and Bindschadler, R., 1998, The origin and longevity of flow stripes on Antarctic ice streams: Annals of Glaciology, v. 27, p. 145-152.
40. Guennoc, P., Pautot, G., and Coutelle, A., 1988, Surficial structures of the northern Red Sea axial valley from 23°N to 28°N: Time and space evolution of neooceanic structures: Tectonophysics, v. 153, p. 1-23, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90005-4.
41. Hall, S.H., 2002, The role of autochthonous salt inflation and deflation in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 19, p. 649-682, doi: 10.1016/S0264-8172(02)00025-9.
42. Hammer, P.T.C., Dorman, L.M., Hildebrand, J.A., and Cornuelle, B.D., 1994, Jasper Seamount structure: Seafloor seismic refraction tomography: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 6731-6752, doi: 10.1029/93JB02170.
43. Hughes Clarke, J.E., Mayer, L.A., and Wells, D.E., 1996, Shallow-water imaging multibeam sonars: A new tool for investigating seafloor processes in the coastal zone and on the continental shelf: Marine Geophysical Researches, v. 18, p. 607-629, doi: 10.1007/BF00313877.
44. Izzeldin, A.Y., 1987, Seismic, gravity and magnetic surveys in the central part of the Red Sea: Their interpretation and implications for the structure and evolution of the Red Sea: Tectonophysics, v. 143, p. 269-306, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(87)90214-9.
45. Jackson, M.P.A., Vendeville, B.C., and Schultz-Ela, D.D., 1994, Structural dynamics of salt systems: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 22, p. 93-117, doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.000521.
46. Jackson, M.P.A., Cramez, C., and Fonck, J.-M., 2000, Role of subaerial volcanic rocks and mantle plumes in creation of South Atlantic margins: Implications for salt tectonics and source rocks: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 17, p. 477-498, doi: 10.1016/S0264-8172(00)00006-4.
47. Karner, G.D., Driscoll, N.W., McGinnis, J.P., Brumbaugh, W.D., and Cameron, N.P., 1997, Tectonic significance of syn-rift sediment packages across the Gabon-Cabinda continental margin: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 14, p. 973-1000, doi: 10.1016/S0264-8172(97)00040-8.
48. Keszthelyi, L., Thordarson, T., McEwen, A., Haack, H., Guilbaud, M.-N., Self, S., and Rossi, M.J., 2004, Icelandic analogs to Martian flood lavas: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 5, paper Q11014, doi: 10.1029/2004GC000758.
49. Klitgord, K.D., and Mudie, J.D., 1974, The Galapagos spreading centre: A near-bottom geophysical survey: Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 38, p. 563-586.
50. Ligi, M., Bonatti, E., Bortoluzzi, G., Brunelli, D., Caratori Tontini, F., Cipriani, A., Cocchi, L., Cuffaro, M., Ferrante, V., Khalil, S., Mitchell, N.C., Rasul, N., and Schettino, A., 2008, Sea-floor spreading initiation: Constraints from geophysical data of the Thetis Deep, northern Red Sea (abstract): Eos (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), v. 89, Abstract T33F-08, p. 53.
51. Malinverno, A., 1991, Inverse square-root dependence of mid-ocean-ridge flank roughness on spreading rate: Nature, v. 352, p. 58-60, doi: 10.1038/352058a0.
52. Manheim, F.T., Dwight, L., and Belastock, R.A., 1974, Porosity, density, grain density, and related physical properties of sediments from the Red Sea drill cores, in Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 887-907.
53. Martinez, F., and Cochran, J.R., 1988, Structure and tectonics in the northern Red Sea: Catching a continental margin between rifting and drifting: Tectonophysics, v. 150, p. 1-32, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90293-4.
54. McBride, B.C., Rowan, M.G., and Weimer, P., 1998, The evolution of allochthonous salt systems, northern Green Canyons and Ewing Bank (offshore Louisiana), northern Gulf of Mexico: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 82, p. 1013-1036.
55. Meyers, J.B., Rosendahl, B.R., and Austin, J.A., 1996a, Deep-penetrating MCS images of the South Gabon Basin: Implications for rift tectonics and post-breakup salt remobilization: Basin Research, v. 8, p. 65-84, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2117.1996.tb00115.x.
56. Meyers, J.B., Rosendahl, B.R., Groschel-Becker, H., Austin, J., and Rona, P.A., 1996b, Deep penetrating MCS imag ing of the rift-to-drift transition, offshore Douala and North Gabon basins, West Africa: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 13, p. 791-835.
57. Micallef, A., Masson, D.G., Berndt, C., and Stow, D.A.V., 2007, Morphology and mechanics of submarine spreading: A case study from the Storegga slide: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 112, F03023, doi: 10.1029/2006JF000739.
58. Middleton, G.V., and Wilcock, P.R., 1994, Mechanics in the Earth and Environmental Sciences: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 459 p.
59. Miles, P.R., Schaming, M., and Lovera, R., 2007, Resurrecting vintage paper seismic records: Marine Geophysical Researches, v. 28, p. 319-329, doi: 10.1007/s11001-007-9034-5.
60. Miller, P.M., and Barakat, H., 1988, Geology of the Safaga Concession, northern Red Sea, Egypt: Tectonophysics, v. 153, p. 123-136, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(88) 90010-8.
61. Minshull, T.A., White, R.S., Mutter, J.C., Buhl, P., Detrick, R.S., Williams, C.A., and Morris, E., 1991, Crustal structure of the Blake Spur fracture zone from expanding spread profiles: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 96, p. 9955-9984, doi: 10.1029/91JB00431.
62. Minshull, T.A., Muller, M.R., and White, R.S., 2006, Crustal structure of the Southwest Indian Ridge at 66(E: Seismic constraints: Geophysical Journal International, v. 166, p. 135-147, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03001.x.
63. Mitchell, N.C., 1993, A model for attenuation of back scatter due to sediment accumulations and its application to determine sediment thickness with GLORIA side-scan sonar: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 98, p. 22,477-22,493, doi: 10.1029/93JB02217.
64. Mitchell, N.C., 2001, The transition from circular to stellate forms of submarine volcanoes: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 106, p. 1987-2003, doi: 10.1029/2000JB900263.
65. Mitchell, N.C., and Huthnance, J.M., 2007, Comparing the smooth, parabolic shapes of interfluves in continental slopes to predictions of diffusion transport models: Marine Geology, v. 236, p. 189-208, doi: 10.1016/j.margeo.2006.10.028.
66. Mohr, M., Warren, J.K., Kukla, P.A., Urai, J.L., and Irmen, A., 2007, Subsurface seismic record of salt glaciers in an extensional intracontinental setting (Late Triassic of northwestern Germany): Geology, v. 35, p. 963-966, doi: 10.1130/G23378A.1.
67. Moulin, M., Aslanian, D., Olivet, J.-L., Contrucci, I., Matias, L., Géli, L., Klingelhoefer, F., Nouzé, H., Réhault, J.-P., and Unternehr, P., 2005, Geological constraints on the evolution of the Angolan margin based on reflection and refraction seismic data (ZaïAngo project): Geophysical Journal International, v. 162, p. 793-810, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02668.x.
68. Mutter, J., Talwani, M., and Stoffa, P.L., 1982, Origin of seaward-dipping reflectors in oceanic crust off the Norwegian margin by " subaerial seafloor spreading" : Geology, v. 10, p. 353-357, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613 (1982)10<353:OOSRIO>2.0.CO;2.
69. Nelson, T.H., 1991, Salt tectonics and listric normal faulting, in Salvador, A., ed., The Gulf of Mexico Basin: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America, Geology of North America, v. J, p. 73-89.
70. Parson, L.M., Murton, B.J., Searle, R.C., Booth, D., Evans, J., Field, P., Keeton, J., Laughton, A., McAlister, E., Millard, N., Redbourne, L., Rouse, I., Shor, A., Smith, D., Spencer, S., Summerhayes, C., and Walker, C., 1993, En echelon axial volcanic ridges at the Reykjanes Ridge: A life cycle of volcanism and tectonics: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 117, p. 73-87, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(93)90118-S.
71. Pautot, G., 1983, Les fosses de la Mer Rouge: Approche géomorphologique d'un stade initial d'ouvertur océanique réalisée a l'aide du Seabeam: Oceanologica Acta, v. 6, p. 235-244.
72. Pautot, G., Auzende, J.M., and LePichon, X., 1970, Continuous deep salt layer along North Atlantic margins related to early phase of rifting: Nature, v. 227, p. 351-354, doi: 10.1038/227351a0.
73. Pautot, G., Guennoc, P., Coutelle, A., and Lyberis, N., 1984, Discovery of a large brine deep in the northern Red Sea: Nature, v. 310, p. 133-136, doi: 10.1038/310133a0.
74. Peach, C.J., 1991, Influence of Deformation on the Fluid Transport Properties of Salt Rocks [Ph.D. thesis]: Utrecht, Netherlands, University of Utrecht, 238 p.
75. Phillips, J.D., and Ross, D.A., 1970, Continuous seismic reflection profiles in the Red Sea: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, ser. A, v. 267, p. 143-152.
76. Pilcher, R.S., and Blumstein, R.D., 2007, Brine volume and salt dissolution rates in Orca Basin, northeast Gulf of Mexico: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 91, p. 823-833.
77. Richter, H., Makris, J., and Rihm, R., 1991, Geophysical observations offshore Saudi Arabia: Seismic and magnetic observations: Tectonophysics, v. 198, p. 297-310, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90157-N.
78. Rihm, R., Makris, J., and Möller, L., 1991, Seismic surveys in the northern Red Sea: Asymmetric crustal structure: Tectonophysics, v. 198, p. 279-295, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90156-M.
79. Rona, P.A., 1982, Evaporites at passive margins, in Scrutton, R.A., ed., Dynamics of passive margins: Geo dynamics Series Volume 6: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union and Geological Society of America, p. 116-132.
80. Ross, D.A., and Schlee, J., 1973, Shallow structure and geologic development of the southern Red Sea: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p. 3827-3848, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<3827:SSAGDO> 2.0.CO;2.
81. Schléder, Z., and Urai, J.L., 2007, Deformation and recrystallization mechanisms in mylonitic shear zones in natu rally deformed extrusive Eocene-Oligocene rocksalt from Eyvanekey Plateau and Garmsar Hills (central Iran): Journal of Structural Geology, v. 29, p. 241-255, doi: 10.1016/j.jsg.2006.08.014.
82. Schmitt, T., Mitchell, N.C., and Ramsay, A.T.S., 2008, Characterizing uncertainties for quantifying bathymetry change between time-separated multibeam echo-sounder surveys: Continental Shelf Research, v. 28, p. 1166-1176, doi: 10.1016/j.csr.2008.03.001.
83. Searle, R.C., 1980, R.R.S. Discovery Cruise 103, 9-25 July 1979; Geology and Geophysics in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea: Institute of Oceanographic Sciences Cruise Report 88, Natural Evironmental Research Council, 21 p.
84. Searle, R.C., and Ross, D.A., 1975, A geophysical study of the Red Sea axial trough between 20.5° and 22°N: Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 43, p. 555-572.
85. Small, C., 1994, A global analysis of mid-ocean ridge axial topography: Geophysical Journal International, v. 116, p. 64-84, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.1994.tb02128.x.
86. Smith, D.K., and Cann, J.R., 1992, The role of seamount volcanism in crustal construction at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (24(-30(N): Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 97, p. 1645-1658, doi: 10.1029/91JB02507.
87. Smith, W.H.F., and Sandwell, D.T., 1997, Global sea floor topography from satellite altimetry and ship soundings: Science, v. 277, p. 1956-1962, doi: 10.1126/science.277.5334.1956.
88. Spiers, C.J., Schutjens, P.M.T.M., Brzesowsky, R.H., Peach, C.J., Liezenberg, J.L., and Zwart, H.J., 1990, Experimental determination of constitutive parameters governing creep of rocksalt by pressure solution, in Knipe, R.J., and Rutter, E.H., eds., Deformation Mechanisms, Rheology and Tectonics: Geological Society of London Special Publication 54, p. 215-227.
89. Steckler, M.S., and Omar, G.I., 1994, Controls on erosional retreat of the uplifted rift flanks at the Gulf of Suez and northern Red Sea: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 12,159-12,173, doi: 10.1029/94JB00278.
90. Stoffers, P., and Kühn, R., 1974, Red Sea evaporites: A petro graphic and geochemical study, in Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 821-847.
91. Stoffers, P., and Ross, D.A., 1974, Sedimentary history of the Red Sea, in Whitmarch, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 849-865.
92. Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D., Lian, O.B., and Tulaczyk, S., 2007, Ice stream sticky spots: A review of their identification and influence beneath contemporary and palaeo-ice streams: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 81, p. 217-249, doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.01.002.
93. Talbot, C.J., 1981, Sliding and other deformation mechanisms in a glacier of salt, S. Iran, in McClay, K.R., and Price, N.J., eds., Thrust and Nappe Tectonics: Geological Society of London Special Publication 9, p. 173-183.
94. Talbot, C.J., 1993, Spreading of salt structures in the Gulf of Mexico: Tectonophysics, v. 228, p. 151-166, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(93)90338-K.
95. Talbot, C.J., and Jarvis, R.J., 1984, Age, budget and dynamics of an active salt extrusion in Iran: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 6, p. 521-533, doi: 10.1016/0191-8141(84)90062-2.
96. Talbot, C.J., and Rogers, E.A., 1980, Seasonal movements in a salt glacier in Iran: Science, v. 208, p. 395-397, doi: 10.1126/science.208.4442.395.
97. Talbot, C.J., Medvedev, C., Alavi, M., Shahrivar, H., and Heidari, E., 2000, Salt extrusion rates at Kuh-e-Jahani, Iran: June 1994 to November 1997, in Vendeville, B.C., Mart, Y., and Vigneresse, J.L., eds., Salt, Shale and Igneous Diapirs in and around Europe: Geological Society of London Special Publication 174, p. 93-110.
98. Tramontini, C., and Davies, D., 1969, A seismic refraction survey in the Red Sea: Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 17, p. 225-241.
99. Urai, J.L., Spiers, C.J., Zwart, H.J., and Lister, G.S., 1986, Weakening of rock salt by water during long-term creep: Nature, v. 324, p. 554-557, doi: 10.1038/324554a0.
100. Watanabe, T., and Peach, C.J., 2002, Electrical impedance measurements of plastically deforming halite rocks at 125°C and 50 MPa: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 107, doi: 10.1029/2001JB000204.
101. Wenkert, D.D., 1979, The flow of salt glaciers: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 6, p. 523-525, doi: 10.1029/GL006i006p00523.
102. Wessel, P., and Smith, W.H.F., 1991, Free software helps map and display data: Eos (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), v. 72, p. 441, doi: 10.1029/90EO00319.
103. Wheildon, J., Evans, T.R., and Girdler, R.W., 1974, Thermal conductivity, density, and sonic velocity measurements of samples of anhydrite and halite from Sites 225 and 227, in Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., Ross, D.A., et al., Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 909-911.
104. Whitmarsh, R.B., Weser, O.E., and Ross, D.A., et al., 1974, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Volume 23B: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1180 p.
105. Wilson, P.G., Turner, J.P., and Westbrook, G.K., 2003, Structural architecture of the ocean-continent boundary at an oblique transform margin through deep-imaging seismic interpretation and gravity modelling: Equatorial Guinea, West Africa: Tectonophysics, v. 374, p. 19-40, doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00326-3.
106. Woelk, S., and Quadfasel, D., 1996, Renewal of deep water in the Red Sea during 1982-1987: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 101, p. 18,155-18,165, doi: 10.1029/96JC01148.
107. Wu, S., Bally, A.W., and Cramez, C., 1990, Allochthonous salt, structure and stratigraphy of the north-eastern Gulf of Mexico: Part 11. Structure: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 7, p. 334-370, doi: 10.1016/0264-8172(90)90014-8.