Lithium: A key to the genetics of bipolar disorder

Genome Medicine

Volumn 1, Issue 8, 2009, Pages

  Cruceanu, Cristiana ^a   Alda, Martin ^b   Turecki, Gustavo ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPA RECEPTOR; CYCLIC AMP RESPONSIVE ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN; DIACYLGLYCEROL KINASE; GLYCOPHORIN A; INOSITOL PHOSPHATE; INOSITOL POLYPHOSPHATE; INOSITOL POLYPHOSPHATE 1 POLYPHOSPHATE; LITHIUM SALT; PHOSPHOLIPASE C GAMMA1; SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

BIPOLAR DISORDER; COMORBIDITY; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG TARGETING; ENZYME INHIBITION; FOUNDER EFFECT; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE EXPRESSION PROFILING; GENE LOCUS; GENETIC ANALYSIS; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HERITABILITY; HOMOZYGOSITY; HUMAN; HYPOTHYROIDISM; MICROARRAY ANALYSIS; NEPHROGENIC DIABETES INSIPIDUS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; TERATOGENICITY; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 77953391117     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1756994X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/gm79     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Ruzickova M, Turecki G, Alda M: Pharmacogenetics and mood stabilization in bipolar disorder. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2003, 123C:18-25.
2. Mamdani F, Groisman IJ, Alda M, Turecki G: Pharmacogenetics and bipolar disorder. Pharmacogenomics J 2004, 4:161-170.
3. Grof P, Alda M, Grof E, Fox D, Cameron P: The challenge of predicting response to stabilising lithium treatment. The importance of patient selection. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 1993, 21: 16-19.
4. Grof P: Mood disorders - new definitions, treatment direc-tions, and understanding. Can J Psychiatry 2002, 47:123-124.
5. Cade JF: Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excite-ment. Med J Aust 1949, 2:349-352.
6. Schou M: [Preventive lithium treatment in manic-depres-sive disease: experiences and progress in recent years.] Nervenarzt 1983, 54:331-339.
7. Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L: Does lithium treatment still work? Evidence of stable responses over three decades. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000, 57:187-190.
8. Garnham J, Munro A, Slaney C, Macdougall M, Passmore M, Duffy A, O'Donovan C, Teehan A, Alda M: Prophylactic treat-ment response in bipolar disorder: results of a naturalistic observation study. J Affect Disord 2007, 104:185-190.
9. Young AH, Hammond JM: Lithium in mood disorders: increasing evidence base, declining use? Br J Psychiatry 2007, 191:474-476.
10. Blanco C, Laje G, Olfson M, Marcus SC, Pincus HA: Trends in the treatment of bipolar disorder by outpatient psychia-trists. Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:1005-1010.
11. Smith LA, Cornelius V, Warnock A, Bell A, Young AH: Effectiveness of mood stabilizers and antipsychotics in the maintenance phase of bipolar disorder: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Bipolar Disord 2007, 9: 394-412.
12. Calabrese JR, Fatemi SH, Kujawa M, Woyshville MJ: Predictors of response to mood stabilizers. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996, 16:24S-31S.
13. Bowden CL: Clinical correlates of therapeutic response in bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 2001, 67:257-265.
14. Greil W, Kleindienst N, Erazo N, Muller-Oerlinghausen B: Differential response to lithium and carbamazepine in the prophylaxis of bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998, 18:455-460.
15. Kusalic M, Engelsmann F: Predictors of lithium treatment responsiveness in bipolar patients. A two-year prospective study. Neuropsychobiology 1998, 37:146-149.
16. Goldberg JF, Garno JL, Leon AC, Kocsis JH, Portera L: A history of substance abuse complicates remission from acute mania in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1999, 60: 733-740.
17. Grof P, Alda M, Grof E, Zvolsky P, Walsh M: Lithium response and genetics of affective disorders. J Affect Disord 1994, 32: 85-95.
18. Alda M: Bipolar disorder: from families to genes. Can J Psychiatry 1997, 42:378-387.
19. Passmore MJ, Garnham J, Duffy A, MacDougall M, Munro A, Slaney C, Teehan A, Alda M: Phenotypic spectra of bipolar disorder in responders to lithium versus lamotrigine. Bipolar Disord 2003, 5:110-114.
20. Dunner DL, Fleiss JL, Fieve RR: Lithium carbonate prophy-laxis failure. Br J Psychiatry 1976, 129:40-44.
21. Strober M, Morrell W, Burroughs J, Lampert C, Danforth H, Freeman R: A family study of bipolar I disorder in adoles-cence. Early onset of symptoms linked to increased famil-ial loading and lithium resistance. J Affect Disord 1988, 15: 255-268.
22. Engstrom C, Astrom M, Nordqvist-Karlsson B, Adolfsson R, Nylander PO: Relationship between prophylactic effect of lithium therapy and family history of affective disorders. Biol Psychiatry 1997, 42:425-433.
23. Coryell W, Akiskal H, Leon AC, Turvey C, Solomon D, Endicott J: Family history and symptom levels during treatment for bipolar I affective disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2000, 47:1034-1042.
24. Mendlewicz J, Fieve RR, Stallone F: Relationship between the effectiveness of lithium therapy and family history. Am J Psychiatry 1973, 130:1011-1013.
25. Prien RF, Caffey EM Jr, Klett CJ: Factors associated with treatment success in lithium carbonate prophylaxis. Report of the Veterans Administration and National Institute of Mental Health collaborative study group. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974, 31:189-192.
26. Smeraldi E, Petroccione A, Gasperini M, Macciardi F, Orsini A, Kidd KK: Outcomes on lithium treatment as a tool for genetic studies in affective disorders. J Affect Disord 1984, 6: 139-151.
27. Turecki G, Grof P, Grof E, D'Souza V, Lebuis L, Marineau C, Cavazzoni P, Duffy A, Bétard C, Zvolský P, Robertson C, Brewer C, Hudson TJ, Rouleau GA, Alda M: Mapping suscep-tibility genes for bipolar disorder: a pharmacogenetic approach based on excellent response to lithium. Mol Psychiatry 2001, 6:570-578.
28. Grof P, Duffy A, Cavazzoni P, Grof E, Garnham J, MacDougall M, O'Donovan C, Alda M: Is response to prophylactic lithium a familial trait? J Clin Psychiatry 2002, 63:942-947.
29. Alda M, Grof E, Cavazzoni P, Duffy A, Martin R, Ravindran L, Grof P: Autosomal recessive inheritance of affective disor-ders in families of responders to lithium prophylaxis? J Affect Disord 1997, 44:153-157.
30. Alda M, Grof P, Grof E, Zvolsky P, Walsh M: Mode of inherit-ance in families of patients with lithium-responsive affec-tive disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994, 90:304-310.
31. Soares JC, Gershon S: The lithium ion: a foundation for psychopharmacological specificity. Neuropsycho pharma-cology 1998, 19:167-182.
32. Swann AC, Bowden CL, Morris D, Calabrese JR, Petty F, Small J, Dilsaver SC, Davis JM: Depression during mania. Treatment response to lithium or divalproex. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997, 54:37-42.
33. MacQueen GM, Hajek T, Alda M: The phenotypes of bipolar disorder: relevance for genetic investigations. Mol Psychiatry 2005, 10:811-826.
34. Aita VM, Liu J, Knowles JA, Terwilliger JD, Baltazar R, Grunn A, Loth JE, Kanyas K, Lerer B, Endicott J, Wang Z, Penchaszadeh G, Gilliam TC, Baron M: A comprehensive linkage analysis of chromosome 21q22 supports prior evi-dence for a putative bipolar affective disorder locus. Am J Hum Genet 1999, 64:210-217.
35. Blackwood DH, He L, Morris SW, McLean A, Whitton C, Thomson M, Walker MT, Woodburn K, Sharp CM, Wright AF, Shibasaki Y, St Clair DM, Porteous DJ, Muir WJ: A locus for bipolar affective disorder on chromosome 4p. Nat Genet 1996, 12:427-430.
36. Ewald H, Flint T, Kruse TA, Mors O: A genome-wide scan shows significant linkage between bipolar disorder and chromosome 12q24.3 and suggestive linkage to chromo-somes 1p22-21, 4p16, 6q14-22, 10q26 and 16p13.3. Mol Psychiatry 2002, 7:734-744.
37. Morissette J, Villeneuve A, Bordeleau L, Rochette D, Laberge C, Gagne B, Laprise C, Bouchard G, Plante M, Gobeil L, Shink E, Weissenbach J, Barden N: Genome-wide search for linkage of bipolar affective disorders in a very large pedi-gree derived from a homogeneous population in quebec points to a locus of major effect on chromosome 12q23-q24. Am J Med Genet 1999, 88:567-587.
38. Degn B, Lundorf MD, Wang A, Vang M, Mors O, Kruse TA, Ewald H: Further evidence for a bipolar risk gene on chro-mosome 12q24 suggested by investigation of haplotype sharing and allelic association in patients from the Faroe Islands. Mol Psychiatry 2001, 6:450-455.
39. Detera-Wadleigh SD, Badner JA, Berrettini WH, Yoshikawa T, Goldin LR, Turner G, Rollins DY, Moses T, Sanders AR, Karkera JD, Esterling LE, Zeng J, Ferraro TN, Guroff JJ, Kazuba D, Maxwell ME, Nurnberger JI Jr, Gershon ES: A high-density genome scan detects evidence for a bipolar-disor-der susceptibility locus on 13q32 and other potential loci on 1q32 and 18p11.2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999, 96:5604-5609.
40. Badenhop RF, Moses MJ, Scimone A, Mitchell PB, Ewen KR, Rosso A, Donald JA, Adams LJ, Schofield PR: A genome screen of a large bipolar affective disorder pedigree sup-ports evidence for a susceptibility locus on chromosome 13q. Mol Psychiatry 2001, 6:396-403.
41. Berrettini WH, Ferraro TN, Goldin LR, Weeks DE, Detera-Wadleigh S, Nurnberger JI Jr, Gershon ES: Chromosome 18 DNA markers and manic-depressive illness: evidence for a susceptibility gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994, 91:5918-5921.
42. Freimer NB, Reus VI, Escamilla MA, McInnes LA, Spesny M, Leon P, Service SK, Smith LB, Silva S, Rojas E, Gallegos A, Meza L, Fournier E, Baharloo S, Blankenship K, Tyler DJ, Batki S, Vinogradov S, Weissenbach J, Barondes SH, Sandkuijl LA: Genetic mapping using haplotype, association and linkage methods suggests a locus for severe bipolar disorder (BPI) at 18q22-q23. Nat Genet 1996, 12:436-441.
43. Kelsoe JR, Spence MA, Loetscher E, Foguet M, Sadovnick AD, Remick RA, Flodman P, Khristich J, Mroczkowski-Parker Z, Brown JL, Masser D, Ungerleider S, Rapaport MH, Wishart WL, Luebbert H: A genome survey indicates a possible sus-ceptibility locus for bipolar disorder on chromosome 22. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001, 98:585-590.
44. Newton JR: Linked gene ontology categories are novel and differ from associated gene ontology categories for the bipolar disorders. Psychiatr Genet 2007, 17:29-34.
45. Badner JA, Gershon ES: Meta-analysis of whole-genome linkage scans of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2002, 7:405-411.
46. Segurado R, Detera-Wadleigh SD, Levinson DF, Lewis CM, Gill M, Nurnberger JI Jr, Craddock N, DePaulo JR, Baron M, Gershon ES, Ekholm J, Cichon S, Turecki G, Claes S, Kelsoe JR, Schofield PR, Badenhop RF, Morissette J, Coon H, Blackwood D, McInnes LA, Foroud T, Edenberg HJ, Reich T, Rice JP, Goate A, McInnis MG, McMahon FJ, Badner JA, Goldin LR, et al.: Genome scan meta-analysis of schizo-phrenia and bipolar disorder, part III: Bipolar disorder. Am J Hum Genet 2003, 73:49-62.
47. Ewald H, Wang AG, Vang M, Mors O, Nyegaard M, Kruse TA: A haplotype-based study of lithium responding patients with bipolar affective disorder on the Faroe Islands. Psychiatr Genet 1999, 9:23-34.
48. Shink E, Morissette J, Sherrington R, Barden N: A genome-wide scan points to a susceptibility locus for bipolar disor-der on chromosome 12. Mol Psychiatry 2005, 10:545-552.
49. Psychiatric GWAS Consortium Steering Committee: A frame-work for interpreting genome-wide association studies of psychiatric disorders. Mol Psychiatry 2009, 14:10-17.
50. Askland K, Read C, Moore J: Pathways-based analyses of whole-genome association study data in bipolar disorder reveal genes mediating ion channel activity and synaptic neurotransmission. Hum Genet 2009, 125:63-79.
51. Marmol F: Lithium: bipolar disorder and neurodegenerative diseases Possible cellular mechanisms of the therapeutic effects of lithium. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008, 32:1761-1771.
52. Sklar P, Smoller JW, Fan J, Ferreira MA, Perlis RH, Chambert K, Nimgaonkar VL, McQueen MB, Faraone SV, Kirby A, de Bakker PI, Ogdie MN, Thase ME, Sachs GS, Todd-Brown K, Gabriel SB, Sougnez C, Gates C, Blumenstiel B, Defelice M, Ardlie KG, Franklin J, Muir WJ, McGhee KA, MacIntyre DJ, McLean A, VanBeck M, McQuillin A, Bass NJ, Robinson M, et al.: Whole-genome association study of bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2008, 13:558-569.
53. Baum AE, Akula N, Cabanero M, Cardona I, Corona W, Klemens B, Schulze TG, Cichon S, Rietschel M, Nöthen MM, Georgi A, Schumacher J, Schwarz M, Abou Jamra R, Höfels S, Propping P, Satagopan J, Detera-Wadleigh SD, Hardy J, McMahon FJ: A genome-wide association study implicates diacylglycerol kinase eta (DGKH) and several other genes in the etiology of bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2008, 13: 197-207.
54. Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium: Genome-wide association study of 14,000 cases of seven common dis-eases and 3,000 shared controls. Nature 2007, 447:661-678.
55. Baum AE, Hamshere M, Green E, Cichon S, Rietschel M, Noethen MM, Craddock N, McMahon FJ: Meta-analysis of two genome-wide association studies of bipolar disorder reveals important points of agreement. Mol Psychiatry 2008, 13: 466-467.
56. The International Schizophrenia Consortium: Purcell SM, Wray NR, Stone JL, Visscher PM, O'Donovan MC, Sullivan PF, Sklar P, Purcell Leader SM, Ruderfer DM, McQuillin A, Morris DW, O'Dushlaine CT, Corvin A, Holmans PA, O'Donovan MC, Sklar P; Polygene analyses subgroup, Wray NR, Macgregor S, Sklar P, Sullivan PF, O'Donovan MC, Visscher PM; Management committee, Gurling H, Blackwood DH, Corvin A, Craddock NJ, Gill M, Hultman CM, Kirov GK, Lichtenstein P, et al.: Common polygenic variation contributes to risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Nature 2009, 460:748-752.
57. Scott LJ, Muglia P, Kong XQ, Guan W, Flickinger M, Upmanyu R, Tozzi F, Li JZ, Burmeister M, Absher D, Thompson RC, Francks C, Meng F, Antoniades A, Southwick AM, Schatzberg AF, Bunney WE, Barchas JD, Jones EG, Day R, Matthews K, McGuffin P, Strauss JS, Kennedy JL, Middleton L, Roses AD, Watson SJ, Vincent JB, Myers RM, Farmer AE, Akil H, Burns DK, Boehnke M: Genome-wide association and meta-analy-sis of bipolar disorder in individuals of European ancestry. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009, 106:7501-7506.
58. Smith EN, Bloss CS, Badner JA, Barrett T, Belmonte PL, Berrettini W, Byerley W, Coryell W, Craig D, Edenberg HJ, Eskin E, Foroud T, Gershon E, Greenwood TA, Hipolito M, Koller DL, Lawson WB, Liu C, Lohoff F, McInnis MG, McMahon FJ, Mirel DB, Murray SS, Nievergelt C, Nurnberger J, Nwulia EA, Paschall J, Potash JB, Rice J, Schulze TG, Scheftner W, Panganiban C, Zaitlen N, Zandi PP, Zöllner S, Schork NJ, Kelsoe JR: Genome-wide association study of bipolar dis-order in European American and African American individ-uals. Mol Psychiatry 2009, 14:755-763.
59. Squassina A, Manchia M, Congiu D, Severino G, Chillotti C, Ardau R, Piccardi M, Zompo MD: The diacylglycerol kinase eta gene and bipolar disorder: a replication study in a Sardinian sample. Mol Psychiatry 2009, 14:350-351.
60. Ollila HM, Soronen P, Silander K, Palo OM, Kieseppa T, Kaunisto MA, Lonnqvist J, Peltonen L, Partonen T, Paunio T: Findings from bipolar disorder genome-wide association studies replicate in a Finnish bipolar family-cohort. Mol Psychiatry 2009, 14:351-353.
61. Perlis RH, Smoller JW, Ferreira MA, McQuillin A, Bass N, Lawrence J, Sachs GS, Nimgaonkar V, Scolnick EM, Gurling H, Sklar P, Purcell S: A genomewide association study of response to lithium for prevention of recurrence in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2009, 166:718-725.
62. Seelan RS, Khalyfa A, Lakshmanan J, Casanova MF, Parthasarathy RN: Deciphering the lithium transcriptome: Microarray profiling of lithium-modulated gene expression in human neuronal cells. Neuroscience 2008, 151:1184-1197.
63. Berridge MJ: Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced calcium mobilization is localized in Xenopus oocytes. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1989, 238:235-243.
64. Berridge MJ, Downes CP, Hanley MR: Neural and develop-mental actions of lithium: a unifying hypothesis. Cell 1989, 59: 411-419.
65. Klein PS, Melton DA: A molecular mechanism for the effect of lithium on development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93: 8455-8459.
66. Detera-Wadleigh SD: Lithium-related genetics of bipolar disorder. Ann Med 2001, 33:272-285.
67. Benedetti F, Bernasconi A, Lorenzi C, Pontiggia A, Serretti A, Colombo C, Smeraldi E: A single nucleotide polymorphism in glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta promoter gene influ-ences onset of illness in patients affected by bipolar disor-der. Neurosci Lett 2004, 355:37-40.
68. Benedetti F, Serretti A, Pontiggia A, Bernasconi A, Lorenzi C, Colombo C, Smeraldi E: Long-term response to lithium salts in bipolar illness is influenced by the glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta -50 T/C SNP. Neurosci Lett 2005, 376:51-55.
69. Szczepankiewicz A, Rybakowski JK, Suwalska A, Skibinska M, Leszczynska-Rodziewicz A, Dmitrzak-Weglarz M, Czerski PM, Hauser J: Association study of the glycogen synthase kinase-3beta gene polymorphism with prophylactic lithium response in bipolar patients. World J Biol Psychiatry 2006, 7: 158-161.
70. Adli M, Hollinde DL, Stamm T, Wiethoff K, Tsahuridu M,Kirchheiner J, Heinz A, Bauer M: Response to lithium aug-mentation in depression is associated with the glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta -50T/C single nucleotide polymor-phism. Biol Psychiatry 2007, 62:1295-1302.
71. Boer U, Cierny I, Krause D, Heinrich A, Lin H, Mayr G, Hiemke C, Knepel W: Chronic lithium salt treatment reduces CRE/ CREB-directed gene transcription and reverses its upregu-lation by chronic psychosocial stress in transgenic reporter gene mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007, 33: 2407-2415
72. Schwaninger M, Blume R, Kruger M, Lux G, Oetjen E, Knepel W: Involvement of the Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase cal-cineurin in gene transcription that is stimulated by cAMP through cAMP response elements. J Biol Chem 1995, 270: 8860-8866.
73. Pham TA, Impey S, Storm DR, Stryker MP: CRE-mediated gene transcription in neocortical neuronal plasticity during the developmental critical period. Neuron 1999, 22:63-72.
74. Kovacs KA, Steullet P, Steinmann M, Do KQ, Magistretti PJ, Halfon O, Cardinaux JR: TORC1 is a calcium- and cAMP-sensitive coincidence detector involved in hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007, 104: 4700-4705.
75. Boer U, Eglins J, Krause D, Schnell S, Schofl C, Knepel W: Enhancement by lithium of cAMP-induced CRE/CREB-directed gene transcription conferred by TORC on the CREB basic leucine zipper domain. Biochem J 2007, 408: 69-77.
76. Schreiber G, Avissar S, Aulakh CS, Murphy DL: Lithium-selective alteration of the function of brain versus cardiac Gs protein. Neuropharmacology 1990, 29:1067-1071.
77. Bezchlibnyk Y, Young LT: The neurobiology of bipolar dis-order: focus on signal transduction pathways and the regu lation of gene expression. Can J Psychiatry 2002, 47: 135-148.
78. Yildiz A, Guleryuz S, Ankerst DP, Ongur D, Renshaw PF: Protein kinase C inhibition in the treatment of mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of tamoxifen. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008, 65:255-263.
79. Turecki G, Grof P, Cavazzoni P, Duffy A, Grof E, Ahrens B, Berghöfer A, Müller-Oerlinghausen B, Dvoráková M, Libigerová E, Vojtechovský M, Zvolský P, Joober R, Nilsson A, Prochazka H, Licht RW, Rasmussen NA, Schou M, Vestergaard P, Holzinger A, Schumann C, Thau K, Rouleau GA, Alda M: Evidence for a role of phospholipase C-gamma1 in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 1998, 3: 534-538.
80. Alda M, Grof P, Grof E: MN blood groups and bipolar dis-order: evidence of genotypic association and Hardy-Wein-berg disequilibrium. Biol Psychiatry 1998, 44:361-363.
81. Serretti A, Lilli R, Lorenzi C, Gasperini M, Smeraldi E: Tryptophan hydroxylase gene and response to lithium prophylaxis in mood disorders. J Psychiatr Res 1999, 33: 371-37_7.
82. Serretti A, Lilli R, Mandelli L, Lorenzi C, Smeraldi E: Serotonin transporter gene associated with lithium prophylaxis in mood disorders. Pharmacogenomics J 2001, 1:71-77.
83. Sun X, Wang JF, Tseng M, Young LT: Downregulation in com-ponents of the mitochondrial electron transport chain in the postmortem frontal cortex of subjects with bipolar dis-order. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2006, 31:189-196.
84. Sun X, Young LT, Wang JF, Grof P, Turecki G, Rouleau GA, Alda M: Identification of lithium-regulated genes in cultured lymphoblasts of lithium responsive subjects with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29:799-804.
85. Plant KE, Anderson E, Simecek N, Brown R, Forster S, Spinks J, Toms N, Gibson GG, Lyon J, Plant N: The neuroprotective action of the mood stabilizing drugs lithium chloride and sodium valproate is mediated through the up-regulation of the homeodomain protein Six1. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009, 235:124-134.
86. McQuillin A, Rizig M, Gurling HM: A microarray gene expres-sion study of the molecular pharmacology of lithium car-bonate on mouse brain mRNA to understand the neurobiology of mood stabilization and treatment of bipolar affective disorder. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2007, 17: 605-617.
87. Chetcuti A, Adams LJ, Mitchell PB, Schofield PR: Microarray gene expression profiling of mouse brain mRNA in a model of lithium treatment. Psychiatr Genet 2008, 18:64-72.
88. Bosetti F, Seemann R, Bell JM, Zahorchak R, Friedman E, Rapoport SI, Manickam P: Analysis of gene expression with cDNA microarrays in rat brain after 7 and 42 days of oral lithium administration. Brain Res Bull 2002, 57:205-209.
89. Hestbech J, Hansen HE, Amdisen A, Olsen S: Chronic renal lesions following long-term treatment with lithium. Kidney Int 1977, 12:205-213.
90. Markowitz GS, Radhakrishnan J, Kambham N, Valeri AM, Hines WH, D'Agati VD: Lithium nephrotoxicity: a progres-sive combined glomerular and tubulointerstitial nephropa-thy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000, 11:1439-1448.
91. Grunfeld JP, Rossier BC: Lithium nephrotoxicity revisited. Nat Rev Nephrol 2009, 5:270-276.
92. O'Brien WT, Harper AD, Jove F, Woodgett JR, Maretto S, Piccolo S, Klein PS: Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta hap-loinsufficiency mimics the behavioral and molecular effects of lithium. J Neurosci 2004, 24:6791-6798.
93. Klug S, Collins M, Nagao T, Merker HJ, Neubert D: Effect of lithium on rat embryos in culture: growth, development, compartmental distribution and lack of a protective effect of inositol. Arch Toxicol 1992, 66:719-728.
94. Smithberg M, Dixit PK: Teratogenic effects of lithium in mice. Teratology 1982, 26:239-246.
95. Newport DJ, Viguera AC, Beach AJ, Ritchie JC, Cohen LS, Stowe ZN: Lithium placental passage and obstetrical outcome: implications for clinical management during late pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry 2005, 162:2162-2170.
96. Torrent C, Amann B, Sanchez-Moreno J, Colom F, Reinares M, Comes M, Rosa AR, Scott J, Vieta E: Weight gain in bipolar disorder: pharmacological treatment as a contributing factor. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2008, 118:4-18.
97. Franks MA, Macritchie KA, Mahmood T, Young AH: Bouncing back: is the bipolar rebound phenomenon peculiar to lithium? A retrospective naturalistic study. J Psycho-pharma col 2008, 22:452-456.
98. Cipriani A, Pretty H, Hawton K, Geddes JR: Lithium in the prevention of suicidal behavior and all-cause mortality in patients with mood disorders: a systematic review of rand-omized trials. Am J Psychiatry 2005, 162:1805-1819.