Big science and big data in biology: From the international geophysical year through the international biological program to the Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) network, 1957-present

Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 183-224

  Aronova, Elena ^a   Baker, Karen S ^b   Oreskes, Naomi ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Big science; Data management; Data driven research; International Biological Program (IBP); International Geophysical Year (IGY); Roger Revelle

Indexed keywords

EID: 77952488975     PISSN: 19391811     EISSN: 1939182X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/hsns.2010.40.2.183     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Alvin M. Weinberg, "Impact of Large-Scale Science on the United States," Science 134 (1961): 161-64
2. see also Alvin M. Weinberg, Reflections on Big Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967)
3. See for example: James H. Capshew and Karen Rader, "Big Science: Price to the Present," Osiris, 2nd series 7 (1992): 3-25
4. Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992)
5. Catherine Westfall, "Rethinking Big Science: Modest, Mezzo, Grand Science and the Development of the Bevalac, 1971-1993," Isis 94 (2003): 30-56
6. Daniel Kevles, "Big Science and Big Politics in the United States: Reflections on the Death of the SSC and the Life of the Human Genome Project," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 27, no. 2 (1997): 269-97
7. On the distinction between "data-driven" and "hypothesis-driven" modes of research, as distinct scientific epistemologies, see D. B. Kell and S. G. Oliver, "Here is the Evidence, Now Where is the Hypothesis? The Complementary Roles of Inductive and Hypothesis-Driven Science in the Post-Genomic Era," Bioessays 26 (2003): 99-105
8. Ulrich Krohs and Werner Callebaut, "Data without Models Merging with Models without Data," in Systems Biology: Philosophical Foundations, ed. F. C. Boogerd, F. G. Bruggeman, J. S. Hofmeyr, and H. V. Westerhoff (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007): 181-213
9. Sabina Leonelli, "On the Locality of Data and Claims about Phenomena," Philosophy of Science 76 (2009): 5-14
10. For historical accounts of theory-driven and instrument-driven research in physics see Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997)
11. On platform-driven research in the space program see David de Vorkin, Science with a Vengeance: How the Military Created the U.S. Space Science after World War II (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992)
12. See Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992)
13. Frank Benjamin Golley, A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology: More Than the Sum of the Parts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993)
14. Chunglin Kwa, "Representations of Nature Mediating between Ecology and Science Policy: The Case of the International Biological Programme," Social Studies of Science 17 (1987): 413-42
15. Chunglin Kwa, "Modeling the Grassland," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 24, no. 1 (1993): 125-55
16. Toby A. Appel, Shaping Biology: The National Science Foundation and American Biological Research, 1945-1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000)
17. Sharon E. Kingsland, The Evolution of American Ecology, 1890-2000 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005)
18. Conrad Waddington, "The Origin," in The Evolution of IBP, ed. E. B. Worthington (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 4-11
19. Kwa, "Modeling the Grassland" (ref. 4), 127
20. On the history of the IGY see Rip Bulkeley, "The Sputniks and the IGY," in Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years since the Soviet Satellite, ed. Roger D. Launius, John Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Press, 2000), 125-60
21. Patrick McCray, "Amateur Scientists, the International Geophysical Year, and the Ambitions of Fred Whipple," Isis 7 (2006): 634-58
22. Allan A. Needell, Science, Cold War, and the American State: Lloyd V. Berkner and the Balance of Professional Ideals (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000)
23. Fae L. Korsmo, "Shaping Up Planet Earth: The International Geophysical Year (1957-1958) and Communicating Science through Print and Film Media," Science Communication 26 (2004): 162-87
24. Fae L. Korsmo, "The International Geophysical Year of 1957 to 1958: An Analysis of Why Both the Executive and Legislative Branches of the U.S. Government Funded the IGY 1957 to 1958," Science, People and Politics 2, no. 1 (2007), available online at http://www.gavaghancommunications.com/ sppkorsmoigy.html (last accessed 3 Mar 2010)
25. Christy Collis and Klaus Dodds, "Assault on the Unknown: The Historical and Political Geographies of the International Geophysical Year (1957-8)," Journal of Historical Geography 34, no. 4 (2008): 555-73
26. Simon Naylor, Katrina Dean, and Martin Siegert, "The IGY and the Ice Sheet: Surveying Antarctica," Journal of Historical Geography 34, no. 4 (2008): 574-95
27. "Advisory Committee for Special Studies," IGY Papers, Drawer 28, Regional Programs: Antarctic: Special Studies, Medical-Biological: General Correspondence, 1955-1958
28. Hugh Odishaw, 8 Mar 1957, IGY Papers, ibid
29. "Advisory Committee for Special Studies," IGY Papers, ibid
30. Needell, Berkner (ref. 7)
31. "Antarctic Microbiology Research Program," draft of 25 Mar 1957, IGY Papers (ref. 8)
32. R. C. Peavey, W. M. Smith "Establishment of Advisory Committee for Special Studies," 21 Mar 1957, IGY Papers, ibid
33. As Fae Korsmo documents, biological research was also done in conjunction with glaciological projects under the auspices of IGY. Fae L. Korsmo, "Glaciology, the Arctic, and the U.S. Military, 1945-1958," in New Spaces of Exploration: Geographies of Discovery in the Twentieth Century, ed. Simon Naylor and James Ryan (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2010), 125-47
34. IGY Bulletin (1957-1965), Sep 1960
35. M. W. Holdgate, "Biological Activities of SCAR," IBP Papers, Series 6: ICSU, Folder Special Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) 1964
36. Frank Campbell, Memorandum on "Biology and IGY," 5 Aug 1957, IGY Papers, ibid
37. On the "systems movement" inspired by Bertalanffy in postwar America, see Debora Hammond, Science of Synthesis. Exploring the Social Implications of General Systems Theory (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2003)
38. Hugh Odishaw, "What Shall We Save in the Geophysical Science?," Isis 53, no. 1 (1962): 80-86
39. See Stanley Ruttenbergh and Henry Rishbeth, "World Data Centers-Past, Present and Future," Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics 56, no. 7 (1994): 865-70
40. Fae L. Korsmo, "The Origins and Principles of the World Data Center System," Data Science Journal 8 (2010): 55-65
41. On amateur observers contributing to the IGY see McCray, "Amateur Scientists" (ref. 7)
42. IGY Bulletin, no. 2 (Aug 1957)
43. For the detailed history of the origin of the concept of the IGY WDC, see Korsmo, "Origins" (ref. 34)
44. Annals of the IGY (1957-1970), vol. 2 A (1957-1958), 367-68
45. Hugh Odishaw, "International Geophysical Year: A Report on the United States Program," Science 127 (1958): 115-28
46. Odishaw, "What Shall We Save?" (ref. 33)
47. Diana Crane, "Transnational Networks in Basic Science," International Organization 25, no. 3 (1971): 585-601
48. In the post-IGY time the principle of multiple data set copies was modified and the WDC data policy concerning the keeping of three identical copies was not extended to newer types of data (ICSU Panel on WDC, Guide to the World Data Center System, 5th ed. (Boulder, CO: World Data Center A, NOAA/NGDC, 1987)
49. IGY Bulletin, no. 2
50. Annals of the IGY (1957-1958), 614-20
51. On military limitations and regulations concerning data on rockets and satellites and on the experiments in space see Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1961)
52. M. Oakles ,"Inter-Office Memorandum," 28 Mar 1957, IGY Papers (ref. 8)
53. ICSU Panel on WDC, Guide to the World Data Center System (Boulder, CO), 300
54. Maxwell S. Doty and Luis R. A. Capurro, eds., Productivity Measurements in the World Ocean (IGY Oceanography Report No. 4, 1961)
55. 14) method and phytoplankton pigment analyses have been presented in the publication: Productivity Measurements in the World Ocean (ibid., iii
56. In the United States, the idea to have a biological program similar to IGY was discussed in the NSF as early as in 1956; see Appel, Shaping Biology (ref. 4), 228
57. On the history of the IBP see Kwa, "Representations of Nature" (ref. 4)
58. Chunglin Kwa, "Local Ecologies, Global Science: Discourses and Strategies of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme," Social Studies of Science 35 (2005): 923-50
59. Golley, History of the Ecosystem Concept. (ref. 4)
60. Hagen, An Entangled Bank (ref. 4)
61. For the insiders' accounts of the IBP's history see: E. B. Worthington, ed., The Evolution of IBP (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975)
62. W. Frank Blair, Big Biology: The US/IBP (Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1977)
63. Worthington, ed., Evolution (ref. 4)
64. The report highlighted at the same time the positive features of a decentralized mode of operation. "Information on the International Biological Program prepared for the Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics of the U.S. House of Representatives," 30 Aug 1967, IBP Papers, Series 8: Government, Folder Congress: Subcommittee on Science R&D: Information of IBP Prepared by NAS-IBP Staff
65. For the history of large-scale projects in the earth sciences see Naomi Oreskes, "Earth Sciences, History of," Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Third Edition, Volume 4 (2002): 761-73
66. Ronald E. Doel, Solar System Astronomy in America: Communities, Patronage, and Interdisciplinary Research, 1920-1958 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
67. Ronald E. Doel, "Constituting the Postwar Earth Sciences: The Military's Influence on the Environmental Sciences in the USA after 1945," Social Studies of Science 33, no. 5 (2003): 635-66
68. Golley, History of the Ecosystem (ref. 4), 111
69. Waddington, "Origin" (ref. 4), 4
70. D. A. Livingston to Frank Campbell, 14 Feb 1964, IBP Papers, Series 1: USNC/IBP: Ad hoc, Folder Membership: D. C. Frey: Survey of Biologists re Interest in IBP (emphasis added)
71. Michael Egan, Barry Commoner and the Science of Survival: The Remaking of American Environmentalism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007), 103
72. Tina M. L. Stevens, Bioethics in America: Origins and Cultural Politics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000)
73. Minutes of the 19-20 Mar 1966 meeting of the USNC/IBP, IBP Papers, Series 2: USNC/ IBP, Folder Meetings: 19 20 March 1966
74. Ironically, Seitz later engaged in many overtly political activities; see Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010)
75. Hugh Odishaw, "International Geophysical Year," Science 128, no. 3339 (1959): 1599-609
76. On Riley see Eric L. Mills, Biological Oceanography. An Early History, 1870-1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989)
77. Capshew and Rader, "Big Science" (ref. 2)
78. Likewise, De Solla Price presented similar ideas in his essay on the dangers of large-scale research entitled "Disease of Science," in Derek J. De Solla Price, Science Since Babylon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961)
79. Paul Weiss, "Experience and Experiment in Biology," Science 135 (1962): 468-71
80. Naomi Oreskes and Ronald Rainger, "Science and Security before the Atomic Bomb: The Loyalty Case of Harald U. Sverdrup," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 31B (2000): 309-69
81. Ronald Rainger, "Patronage and Science: Roger Revelle, the U.S. Navy, and Oceanography at the Scripps Institution," Earth Sciences History 19, no. 1 (2000): 58-89
82. Ronald Rainger, "Constructing a Landscape for Postwar Science: Roger Revelle, the Scripps Institution and the University of California, San Diego," Minerva 39 (2001): 327-52
83. see also Chandra Mukerji, A Fragile Power-Scientists and the State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990)
84. In this new position Revelle coupled the concerns of population change with broader environmental and social issues (RP, Revelle's Oral History, 1984)
85. Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown (ref. 42), 346
86. Henry B. Bigelow, Oceanography, Its Scope, Problems and Economic Importance (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931)
87. Rainger, "Patronage and Science" (ref. 76)
88. See Rainger, "Constructing a Landscape" (ref. 76)
89. Revelle's involvement with biology continued in the late 1950s as the chairman of the Oceanography and Fisheries Panel of the Committee on the Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation. See Thomas F. Malone, Edward D. Goldberg, and Walter H. Munk, "Roger Randall Dougan Revelle, 1909-1991," Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 75 (1998): 3-23
90. Werner Buedeler, The International Geophysical Year (Paris: UNESCO, 1957), 60, 68
91. David Pimentel to Roger Revelle, 5 Jan 1968, IBP Papers, Series 2: USNC/IBP, Folder Meeting: Agenda: 20-21 Jan 1968
92. The International Biological Program: Its Meaning and Needs, Report of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, 90th Congress, 2nd sess., 1968, 25
93. Blair, Big Biology (ref. 48), 21. Revelle himself, however, did not make any negative remarks upon his apparent dismissal. The President of NAS, Frederick Seitz, described Revelle's attitude toward the change in the IBP leadership in a most cheerful way to Frank Blair: "I spoke with Roger Revelle with regard to the changing of chairmanship of the International Biological Program. He was deeply pleased to learn that you had accepted the position as the new chairman. His pleasure was multiple since he, in fact, had proposed you in the first place."
94. Roger Revelle, "International Biological Program," Science 155 (1967)
95. On the role of AEC in the development and transformation of ecological research see Stephen Bocking, "Ecosystems, Ecologists, and the Atom: Environmental Research at Oak Ridge National Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology 28, no. 1 (1995): 1-47. Ron Doel points out that one of the underlying reasons for the AEC to engage in the ecosystem concept was the prospect of a wide range of atomic tests that could be done under Project Plowshares (personal communication)
96. IBP: Its Meaning and Needs (ref. 96), 2
97. A. A. Brooks and R. L. Sayrs, "Documentation and Submission of Data Sets," Oak Ridge National Laboratory internal publication, 1972, Coniferous Biome Data Bank copy, LTER Papers
98. Crane, "Transnational Networks" (ref. 39)
99. J. Rotblat, Pugwash-The First Ten Years: History of the Conferences of Science and World Affairs (London: Heinemann, 1967)
100. J. Rotblat, Pugwash-The First Ten Years: History of the Conferences of Science and World Affairs (Ibid., 116. During the 1960s and 1970s the IGY/WDC system was reorganized. Most of World Data Centers were merged with the national data centers created by the military soon after the termination of the IGY. As Fae Korsmo pointed out, while the military services were interested in having the geophysical data readily available, the WDC system did not operate fast enough to process the data into the standards suitable for military operations. The WDC for Oceanography, which was operated during the IGY by Texas A & M College, was merged in 1961 into the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) established by the Navy
101. See Rotblat, Pugwash (ref. 113), 180
102. Bentley Glass, "Pugwash Interest in Communications," Science 159 (1968): 1328-31
103. Glass, "Pugwash Interest" (ref. 115)
104. See, for example, minutes of the conference on "Cooperation in the Life Sciences" (1961)
105. Rodger Mitchell, Ramona A. Mayer, and Jerry Downhower, "An Evaluation of Three Biome Programs," Science 192 (1976): 859-65
106. Kingsland, Evolution of American Ecology (ref. 48)
107. Unifying role of systems approach was emphasized by advocates of ecosystems concept. See Eugene Odum, "The Emergence of Ecology as a New Integrative Discipline," Science 195 (1977): 1289-93
108. Some IBP programs utilized the former IGY World Data Centers reorganized into National Data Centers after the end of the IGY. Thus, some of the data from IBP upwelling ecosystems program flew to NODC (U.S. Participation in the International Biological Program, U.S. National Committee for the International Biological Program, Report No. 6 (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1974), 23)
109. Brooks and Sayrs, "Documentation and Submission," LTER Papers (ref. 108)
110. M. L. Dunbar, "Productivity of Marine Ecosystems," in Productivity of the World Ecosystems: Proceedings of V General Assembly of the Special Committee for the International Biological Program (Washington, DC: National Academy of Science, 1975), 27
111. Mitchell, Mayer, and Downhower, "Evaluation of Biome Programs" (ref. 118)
112. Data as presented in U.S. Participation (ref. 125), 23
113. Long, "Forest and the Mainframe" (ref. 4), 55
114. T. C. Foin and S. K. Jain, "Ecosystems Analysis and Population Biology: Lessons for the Development of Community Ecology," BioScience 27, no. 8 (1977): 532-38, on 538
115. Sharon E. Kingsland, Modeling Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985)
116. Dennis J. Crisp, "Secondary Productivity in the Sea," in Productivity of the World Ecosystems: Proceedings of V General Assembly of the Special Committee for the International Biological Program (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1975), 71
117. C. H., "NAS Report on International Biological Program," Science 187 (1975): 663
118. Philip M. Boffey, "International Biological Program: Was It Worth the Cost and Effort?" Science 193 (1976): 866-68
119. Worthington, ed., Evolution of IBP (ref. 48), 60
120. George S. Innis, "Future Directions in Ecosystem Modeling," 26-27 Jul 1973, IBP Papers, Series 2: USNC/IBP, Folder Meetings: 26 Jul 1973
121. As a solution Innis suggested to revise the modeling approach by seeing the ecosystem as a "self-organizing system." In practice this meant shifting from the models of large ecosystems to the "library of submodels," or smaller modules that can be replaced, revised, and adjusted independently depending on the data and simulation experiments. In other IBP biome sites the projects aimed at modeling large ecosystems were replaced by early 1970s by largely descriptive programs with the elements of ecosystem analysis. See Alexios R. Antypas, "Translating Ecosystem Science into Ecosystem Management and Policy: A Case Study of Network Formation" (PhD dissertation, University of Washington, 1998)
122. Minutes of Meeting, 21 Jan 1972, IBP Papers, Series 2: USNC/IBP, Folder Meetings: Minutes, 17-21 Jan 1972
123. Dave Coleman, Dac Crossley, and James Gorz, "In Memory of James T. 'Tom' Callahan," LTER Newsletter (1999)
124. Cited in Antypas, "Translating Ecosystem Science" (ref. 145), 96
125. J. F. Franklin, C. S. Bledsoe, and J. T. Callahan, "Contributions of the Long-Term Ecological Research Program," BioScience 40, no. 7 (1990): 509-23
126. Gene E. Likens, ed., Long Term Studies in Ecology: Approaches and Alternatives (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989)
127. See, for example, A Pilot Program for Long-Term Observation and Study of Ecosystems in the United States. Report of a Second Conference on Long-Term Ecological Measurements, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, February 6-10, 1978 (Washington, DC: NSF Program in Biological Research Resources, 1978)
128. K. S. Baker, B. J. Benson, D. L. Henshaw, D. Blodgett, J. H. Porter, and S. G. Stafford, "Evolution of a Multisite Network Information System: The LTER Information Management Paradigm," BioScience 50 (2000): 963-78
129. K. S. Baker and F. Millerand, "Infrastructuring Ecology: Challenges in Achieving Data Sharing," in Collaboration in the New Life Sciences, ed. J. Parker, N. Vermeulen, and B. Penders (London: Ashgate, in press)
130. H. Karasti, K. S. Baker, and E. Halkola, "Enriching the Notion of Data Curation in E-Science: Data Managing and Information Infrastructuring in the Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network," Computer Supported Cooperative Work 15 (2006): 321-58
131. OSU Forest Science Data Bank Newsletter, vol. 2, no. 1 (1983)
132. LTER papers
133. Although during the IBP, as many reviewers noted, proper management of the data did not become an established tradition, several data banks were established during the time of the program, for example, the Forest Science Data Bank at Andrews Experimental Forest (OSU Forest Science Data Bank Newsletter 2, no. 2 (1983)
134. See also S. G. Stafford, P. B. Alaback, K. V. Wadell, and R. L. Slagle, "Data Management Procedures in Ecological Research," in Research Data Management in the Ecological Sciences, ed. W. K. Michener (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), 93-113. Susan Stafford, the long-time data manager of the FSDB, had an educational background both in ecology and statistics, with a PhD in applied statistics
135. As ecologist Frederick Smith noticed, by 1968 biometrics became largely the domain of ecologists, because geneticists, who were the major proponents of biometrics in the first half of the twentieth century, had changed from mathematical to a chemical orientation. As a result, teaching courses in biometrics in many departments shifted from the geneticists to the ecologists. See Frederick Smith, "The International Biological Program and the Science of Ecology," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 60, no. 1 (1968): 5-11
136. Thomas B. Kirchner, "PREMOD and MOMAID: Software Tools for the Construction and Analysis of Simulation Models," in Research Data Management in the Ecological Sciences, ed. W. K. Michener (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1986), 345-71, on 346
137. Sabina Leonelli, Weed for Thought: Using Arabidopsis Thaliana to Understand Plant Biology (PhD dissertation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 2007), 42
138. LTER grew from six sites that composed the network in 1980 to twenty-six sites by 2005; see LTER Network. Celebrating 25 years of Excellence in Long Term Ecological Research (LTER Network Office, 2005)
139. John J. Magnuson, "Reflections on LTER Beginnings, Challenges, and the Future," Network News (2006)
140. Following the lead of the American Institute of Physics, a number of historians, sociologists, and ethnographers have launched projects attempting to document large-scale collaborations (see American Institute of Physics' Study of Multi-Institutional Collaborations. Phase I: High-Energy Physics (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1992)
141. American Institute of Physics' Study of Multi-Institutional Collaborations. Phase II: Space Science and Geophysics (College Park, MD: American Institute of Physics, 1995)
142. for an overview see Ivan Chompalov and Wesley Shrum, "Institutional Collaboration in Science: A Typology of Technological Practice," Science Technology Human Values 24 (1999): 338-72
143. On the culture of "gadgeteering" see Paul Forman, "Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960," Historical Studies in Physical and Biological Sciences 18, no. 1 (1987): 149-229
144. On data in Big Physics, see Peter Galison, Image and Logic (ref. 3)
145. On data collection as central to the history of earth science, see Oreskes, "Earth Sciences" (ref. 53)
146. On "omics" disciplines see Krohs and Callebaut, "Data without Models Merging" (ref. 3)
147. On the Human Genome Project and related developments, see J. L. Heilbron and Daniel Kevles, "Finding a Policy for Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome: Lessons from the History of Particle Physics," Minerva 26 (1988): 299-314
148. Leonelli, Weed for Thought (ref. 160)
149. Sabina Leonelli, "Circulating Evidence across Research Contexts: The
150. Bruno J. Strasser, "Collecting and Experimenting: The Moral Economies of Biological Research, 1960s-1980s," Preprints of the Max-Planck Institute for the History of Science 310 (2006): 105-23