Risk factors for progression of chronic kidney disease

Current Opinion in Pediatrics

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 161-169

  Staples, Amy ^a   Wong, Craig ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Anemia; Blood pressure; Chronic kidney disease; Genome wide association studies; Proteinuria; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ACTININ 4; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ERYTHROPOIETIN; GLYCINE AMIDINOTRANSFERASE; JAGGED1; PODOCIN; TAMM HORSFALL GLYCOPROTEIN; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 7 LIKE 2;

ALBUMINURIA; ANEMIA; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC RISK; GENOMICS; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INULIN CLEARANCE; KIDNEY FAILURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEINURIA; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

CHILD; DISEASE PROGRESSION; GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE; HUMANS; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 77952251125     PISSN: 10408703     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/MOP.0b013e328336ebb0     Document Type: Review

References (79)

1. Eddy AA. Progression in chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2005;12:353-365.
2. (USRDS) USRDS: USRDS 2008 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2008.
3. Schieppati A, Remuzzi G. Chronic renal diseases as a public health problem: epidemiology, social, and economic implications. Kidney Int 2005; 68: S7-S10. (Pubitemid 43307841)
4. Staples AO, Smith JC, Gipson DS, et al. Risk factors associated with progression of pediatric chronic kidney disease. E-PAS 2007;61:7919.5.
5. Vassalotti JA, Stevens LA, Levey AS. Testing for chronic kidney disease: a position statement from the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;50:169-180.
6. Wong CS, Mak RHK. Chronic kidney disease. In: Kher KK, Schnapper HW, Makker SP, editors. Clinical pediatric nephrology. Informa UK Ltd; 2007. pp. 339-352.
7. Sanna-Cherchi S, Ravani P, Corbani V, et al. Renal outcome in patients with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Kidney Int 2009;76:528-533. Observational study with long-term outcomes demonstrating the increased risk for ESRD of children with a congenital solitary kidney and of children with hypodysplasia.
8. Chesney RW. The future of pediatric nephrology. Pediatr Nephrol 2005;20:867-871.
9. National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39: S1-S266.
10. Ardissino G, Dacco V, Testa S, et al. Epidemiology of chronic renal failure in children: data from the ItalKid project. Pediatrics 2003; 111: e382-e387.
11. ESCAPE Trial Group, Wuhl E, Trivelli A, Picca S, et al. Strict blood-pressure control and progression of renal failure in children. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1639-1650. This interventional study demonstrates the benefit of intensified BP control to slow CKD progression in children with CKD.
12. Furth SL, Cole SR, Moxey-Mims M, et al. Design and methods of the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children (CKiD) prospective cohort study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;1:1006-1015.
13. Soares CM, Oliveira EA, Diniz JS, et al. Predictive factors of progression of chronic renal insufficiency: a multivariate analysis. Pediatr Nephrol 2003;18:371-377. (Pubitemid 36790077)
14. Hogg RJ, Furth S, Lemley KV, et al. National Kidney Foundation's Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease in children and adolescents: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Pediatrics 2003;111:1416-1421. (Pubitemid 36682280)
15. Schwartz GJ, Furth S, Cole SR, et al. Glomerular filtration rate via plasma iohexol disappearance: pilot study for chronic kidney disease in children. Kidney Int 2006;69:2070-2077. (Pubitemid 43924273)
16. Gaspari F, Perico N, Ruggenenti P, et al. Plasma clearance of nonradioactive iohexol as a measure of glomerular filtration rate. J Am Soc Nephrol 1995;6:257-263.
17. Schwartz GJ, Munoz A, Schneider MF, et al. New equations to estimate GFR in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:629-637. This is an update of GFR estimating equations based on clinical and laboratory measurements using the GFR by iohexol plasma disappearance as the gold standard.
18. Abraham AG, Schwartz GJ, Furth S, et al. Longitudinal formulas to estimate GFR in children with CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:1724-1730.
19. Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, et al. Blood pressure control, proteinuria, and the progression of renal disease. The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease study. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:754-762.
20. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of effect of ramipril on decline in glomerular filtration rate and risk of terminal renal failure in proteinuric, nondiabetic nephropathy. The GISEN group (Gruppo Italiano di Studi Epidemiologici in Nefrologia). Lancet 1997;349:1857-1863.
21. Ardissino G, Testa S, Dacco V, et al. Proteinuria as a predictor of disease progression in children with hypodysplastic nephropathy. Data from the Ital Kid Project. Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19:172-177. (Pubitemid 38181010)
22. Wuhl E, Mehls O, Schaefer F. Antihypertensive and antiproteinuric efficacy of ramipril in children with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 2004;66:768-776. (Pubitemid 38982021)
23. Ellis D, Moritz ML, Vats A, Janosky JE. Antihypertensive and renoprotective efficacy and safety of losartan. A long-term study in children with renal disorders. Am J Hypertens 2004;17:928-935. (Pubitemid 39361665)
24. Yang Y, Ohta K, Shimizu M, et al. Treatment with low-dose angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) plus angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) in pediatric patients with IgA nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 2005;64:35-40. (Pubitemid 40975063)
25. Wong CS, Pierce CB, Cole SR, et al. Association of proteinuria with race, cause of chronic kidney disease, and glomerular filtration rate in the chronic kidney disease in children study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:812-819. This study evaluates the determinants of proteinuria among children with CKD.
26. Locatelli F, Marcelli D, Comelli M, et al. Proteinuria and blood pressure as causal components of progression to end-stage renal failure. Northern Italian Cooperative Study Group. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996;11:461-467.
27. Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, et al. Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N Engl J Med 1996;334:13-18. (Pubitemid 26012498)
28. Mitsnefes M, Ho PL, McEnery PT. Hypertension and progression of chronic renal insufficiency in children: a report of the North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative study (NAPRTCS). J Am Soc Nephrol 2003;14:2618-2622. (Pubitemid 37169348)
29. Wingen AM, Fabian-Bach C, Schaefer F, Mehls O. Randomised multicentre study of a low-protein diet on the progression of chronic renal failure in children. European Study Group of Nutritional Treatment of Chronic Renal Failure in Childhood. Lancet 1997;349:1117-1123.
30. Wuhl E, Schaefer F. Therapeutic strategies to slow chronic kidney disease progression. Pediatr Nephrol 2008;23:705-716.
31. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 2003;42:1206-1252. (Pubitemid 37553153)
32. Summary of the 2007 European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2007;3:783-795.
33. Flynn JT, Mitsnefes M, Pierce C, et al. Blood pressure in children with chronic kidney disease: a report from the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children study. Hypertension 2008;52:631-637. This study from the CKiD group identifies that there are barriers to achieving controlled BP and assesses the determinants for controlled and uncontrolled BP.
34. Chandra M, McVicar M, Clemons GK. Pathogenesis of the anemia of chronic renal failure: the role of erythropoietin. Adv Pediatr 1988;35:361-389.
35. Wong H, Mylrea K, Feber J, et al. Prevalence of complications in children with chronic kidney disease according to KDOQI. Kidney Int 2006;70:585-590. (Pubitemid 44141587)
36. Staples AO, Wong CS, Smith JM, et al. Anemia and risk of hospitalization in pediatric chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:48-56. This study demonstrates the increased risk of hospitalization associated with anemia in children with CKD and shows no association between increased risk of morbidity and normalized hematocrit levels.
37. Fadrowski JJ, Pierce CB, Cole SR, et al. Hemoglobin decline in children with chronic kidney disease: baseline results from the chronic kidney disease in children prospective cohort study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3:457-462. The present study demonstrates that there is a threshold of GFR in children with CKD when the rate of anemia becomes more pronounced.
38. Amaral S, Hwang W, Fivush B, et al. Association of mortality and hospitalization with achievement of adult hemoglobin targets in adolescents maintained on hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2878-2885. (Pubitemid 44484678)
39. Warady BA, Ho M. Morbidity and mortality in children with anemia at initiation of dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 2003;18:1055-1062. (Pubitemid 37236222)
40. Furth SL, Cole SR, Fadrowski JJ, et al. The association of anemia and hypoalbuminemia with accelerated decline in GFR among adolescents with chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2007;22:265-271.
41. Kuriyama S, Tomonari H, Yoshida H, et al. Reversal of anemia by erythropoietin therapy retards the progression of chronic renal failure, especially in nondiabetic patients. Nephron 1997;77:176-185. (Pubitemid 27440408)
42. Rossert J, Levin A, Roger SD, et al. Effect of early correction of anemia on the progression of CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;47:738-750.
43. Drueke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, et al. Normalization of hemoglobin level in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2071-2084. (Pubitemid 44749316)
44. Parfrey PS, Foley RN, Wittreich BH, et al. Double-blind comparison of full and partial anemia correction in incident hemodialysis patients without symptomatic heart disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2180-2189.
45. Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, et al. Correction of anemia with epoetin alfa in chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2085-2098. (Pubitemid 44749317)
46. Burke JR. Low-dose subcutaneous recombinant erythropoietin in children with chronic renal failure. Australian and New Zealand Paediatric Nephrology Association. Pediatr Nephrol 1995;9:558-561.
47. Montini G, Zacchello G, Baraldi E, et al. Benefits and risks of anemia correction with recombinant human erythropoietin in children maintained by hemodialysis. J Pediatr 1990;117:556-560. (Pubitemid 20332094)
48. Abitbol CL, Chandar J, Rodriguez MM, et al. Obesity and preterm birth: additive risks in the progression of kidney disease in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2009;24:1363-1370. This retrospective single center study provides compelling data regarding the increased risk for CKD in individuals who are born preterm. The evaluation of obesity in their study demonstrated that obese patients who were preterm infants had a more rapid decline in kidney function compared with obese patients who were born at term.
49. Vikse BE, Irgens LM, Leivestad T, et al. Low birth weight increases riskforend-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:151-157. Cohort study with registry data with long-term follow-up in Norway demonstrates the increased risk of low birth weight and ESRD.
50. Feig DI. Uric acid: a novel mediator and marker of risk in chronic kidney disease? Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2009;18:526-530.
51. Feig DI, Soletsky B, Johnson RJ. Effect of allopurinol on blood pressure of adolescents with newly diagnosed essential hypertension: a randomized trial. JAMA 2008;300:924-932. This interventional study with allopurinol provides a possible mechanism by which elevated serum uric acid levels are associated with CKD progression.
52. Hsu CY, Iribarren C, McCulloch CE, et al. Risk factors for end-stage renal disease: 25-year follow-up. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:342-350. This is a population-based retrospective cohort study that identified multiple risk factors associated with ESRD. The most important risk factors identified by the authors were proteinuria and excess weight. Other risk factors of interest included lower hemoglobin level, higher uric acid level, self-reported history of nocturia, and family history of kidney disease.
53. Lin JL, Lin-Tan DT, Li YJ, et al. Low-level environmental exposure to lead and progressive chronic kidney diseases. Am J Med 2006;119:707. e1-707. e9.
54. Muntner P, He J, Vupputuri S, et al. Blood lead and chronic kidney disease in the general United States population: results from NHANES III. Kidney Int 2003;63:1044-1050. (Pubitemid 36315583)
55. Muntner P, Coresh J, Smith JC, et al. Plasma lipids and riskof developing renal dysfunction: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Kidney Int 2000;58:293-301. (Pubitemid 30429874)
56. de Brito-Ashurst I, Varagunam M, Raftery MJ, Yaqoob MM. Bicarbonate supplementation slows progression of CKD and improves nutritional status. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2075-2084. Randomized open-label, prospective parallel-group study of bicarbonate supplementation in adults with CKD. Intervention participants had a slower decline in creatinine clearance and improved nutritional status compared with controls.
57. Okamura DM, Himmelfarb J. Tipping the redox balance of oxidative stress in fibrogenic pathways in chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2009;24:2309-2319.
58. Norman LJ, Macdonald IA, Watson AR. Optimising nutrition in chronic renal insufficiency: progression of disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19:1253-1261. (Pubitemid 39462427)
59. Ritz E, Gross ML, Dikow R. Role of calcium-phosphorous disorders in the progression of renal failure. Kidney Int Suppl 2005; 99: S66-S70. (Pubitemid 44324689)
60. Ravani P, Malberti F, Tripepi G, et al. Vitamin D levels and patient outcome in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2009;75:88-95. This prospective observational cohort study among adult patients with CKD demonstrates that low serum vitamin D levels are associated with a higher risk for CKD progression and death.
61. Iyengar SK, Abboud HE, Goddard KA, et al. Genome-wide scans for diabetic nephropathy and albuminuria in multiethnic populations: the family investigation of nephropathy and diabetes (FIND). Diabetes 2007;56:1577-1585.
62. Freedman BI, Bowden DW, Rich SS, et al. Genome-wide linkage scans for renal function and albuminuria in type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Diabetes Heart study. Diabet Med 2008;25:268-276.
63. Freedman BI, Bostrom M, Daeihagh P, Bowden DW. Genetic factors in diabetic nephropathy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;2:1306-1316.
64. Bowden DW, Colicigno CJ, Langefeld CD, et al. A genome scan for diabetic nephropathy in African Americans. Kidney Int 2004;66:1517-1526.
65. Kopp JB, Smith MW, Nelson GW, et al. MYH9 is a major-effect risk gene for focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Nat Genet 2008;40:1175-1184. Identification of MYH9 as a novel gene associated with primary and secondary forms of focal segmental sclerosis.
66. Pattaro C, Aulchenko YS, Isaacs A, et al. Genome-wide linkage analysis of serum creatinine in three isolated European populations. Kidney Int 2009;76:297-306. Identification of the MYH9 gene associated with serum creatinine levels in Europeans.
67. Kao WH, Klag MJ, Meoni LA, et al. MYH9 is associated with nondiabetic end-stage renal disease in African Americans. Nat Genet 2008;40:1185-1192. Reports of MYH9 locus associated with ESRD in African-Americans accounting for a large proportion of the excess risk for ESRD observed in African-Americans compared with European Americans.
68. Freedman BI, Hicks PJ, Bostrom MA, et al. Polymorphisms in the nonmuscle myosin heavy chain 9 gene (MYH9) are strongly associated with end-stage renal disease historically attributed to hypertension in African Americans. Kidney Int 2009;75:736-745. Reports of MYH9 locus associated with ESRD in African-Americans. Taken together with the other reports, the MYH9 gene is a significant genetic risk factor for CKD.
69. Freedman BI, Kopp JB, Winkler CA, et al. Polymorphisms in the nonmuscle myosin heavy chain 9 gene (MYH9) are associated with albuminuria in hypertensive African Americans: the HyperGEN study. Am J Nephrol 2009;29:626-632.
70. Arrondel C, Vodovar N, Knebelmann B, et al. Expression of the nonmuscle myosin heavy chain IIA in the human kidney and screening for MYH9 mutations in Epstein and Fechtner syndromes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:65-74. (Pubitemid 34042012)
71. Kottgen A, Glazer NL, Dehghan A, et al. Multiple loci associated with indices of renal function and chronic kidney disease. Nat Genet 2009;74:712-717. GWAS demonstrating multiple loci, GATM, JAG1, SHROOM3, STC1, and UMOD, are associated with CKD and level of kidney function.
72. Hwang SJ, Yang Q, Meigs JB, et al. A genome-wide association for kidney function and endocrine-related traits in the NHLBI's Framingham Heart study. BMC Med Genet 2007; 8 (Suppl 1) : S10. (Pubitemid 351958751)
73. Kottgen A, Kao WH, Hwang SJ, et al. Genome-wide association study for renal traits in the Framingham Heart and Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities studies. BMC Med Genet 2008;9:49. Identified that the EYA1 and MTHFS genes are associated with CKD progression. (Pubitemid 351891420)
74. Kottgen A, Hwang SJ, Rampersaud E, et al. TCF7L2 variants associate with CKD progression and renal function in population-based cohorts. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:1989-1999. Identifies that the TCF7L2 gene is associated with CKD progression.
75. Henderson JM, Alexander MP, Pollak MR. Patients with ACTN4 mutations demonstrate distinctive features of glomerular injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:961-968.
76. Kaplan JM, Kim SH, North KN, et al. Mutations in ACTN4, encoding alphaactinin-4, cause familial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Nat Genet 2000;24:251-256.
77. Dusel JA, Burdon KP, Hicks PJ, et al. Identification of podocin (NPHS2) gene mutations in African Americans with nondiabetic end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int 2005;68:256-262.
78. Garg AX, Kiberd BA, Clark WF, et al. Albuminuria and renal insufficiency prevalence guides population screening: results from the NHANES III. Kidney Int 2002;61:2165-2175.
79. Fox CS, Yang Q, Guo C-Y, et al. Genome-wide linkage analysis to urinary microalbuminuria in a community-based sample: the Framingham Heart study. Kidney Int 2005;67:70-74. (Pubitemid 40019227)