Disposal of coal combustion residues in terrestrial systems: Contamination and risk management

Journal of Environmental Quality

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 761-775

  Dellantonio, Alex ^a   Fitz, Walter J ^a   Repmann, Frank ^b   Wenzel, Walter W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND LIFE SCIENCES   (Austria)

^b BRANDENBURG UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS; CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGIES; COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUES; COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT; COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY; CONCENTRATION OF; DISPOSAL SITES; EFFLUENT DISCHARGE; ENERGY DEMANDS; FEED COALS; FOOD CHAIN; HUMAN HEALTH; MINERAL CARBONATION; PHYTOACCUMULATION; PLANT TOXICITY; RE-SUSPENSION; RELATED RISK; RESEARCH EFFORTS; SUSPENDED SOLIDS; TERRESTRIAL SYSTEMS; VOLATILE ELEMENTS;

AIR POLLUTION; ANIMALS; CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION; CHROMIUM; COAL; COAL INDUSTRY; DECISION MAKING; EFFLUENTS; ENERGY MANAGEMENT; FOSSIL FUEL POWER PLANTS; GROUNDWATER; HEALTH RISKS; MERCURY (METAL); MINING; MOLYBDENUM; PH EFFECTS; RADON; RISK MANAGEMENT; SOLVENTS; TOXICITY;

COAL COMBUSTION;

ARSENIC; BORON; CADMIUM; COAL; COPPER; MERCURY; SELENIUM;

BIOACCUMULATION; COMBUSTION; CONTAMINATION; ENERGY; LAND BIOME; PHYTOTOXICITY; RADIOACTIVITY; REVIEW; RISK MANAGEMENT; VOLATILIZATION; WASTE DISPOSAL;

COAL; CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES; ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLIES; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; REFUSE DISPOSAL; RISK MANAGEMENT;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 77952189781     PISSN: 00472425     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2134/jeq2009.0068     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. American Coal Ash Association. 2003. Glossary of terms concerning the management and use of coal combustion products (CCPs). Available at http://acaa.affiniscape.com/associations/8003/files/ACAA-Glossary-of-Terms-Apri- 2003.pdf (verified 9 Feb. 2010). Am. Coal Ash Assoc., Aurora, CO.
2. American Coal Ash Association. 2008. 2007 coal combustion product (CCP) production and use survey results (revised). Am. Coal Ash Association Inc. Available at http://www.acaa-usa.org/associations/8003/files/2007-ACAA-CCP- Survey-Report-Form(09-15-08). pdf (verified 9 Feb. 2010). Am. Coal Ash Assoc., Aurora, CO.
3. Adriano, D.C. 2001. Trace elements in terrestrial environments: Biogeochemistry, bioavailability, and risks of metals. Springer, New York.
4. Adriano, D.C., A.L. Page, A.A. Elseewi, A.C. Chang, and I. Straughan. 1980. Utilization and disposal of fly ash and other coal residues in terrestrial ecosystems: A review. J. Environ. Qual. 9:333-344.
5. Ainsworth, C.C., and D. Rai. 1987. Chemical characterization of fossil fuel wastes. Electric Power Research Inst., Palo Alto, CA.
6. Ainsworth, C.C., D. Rai, and S.C. Smith. 1995. Cause and remediation of hydrogen sulfide emissions from a sodium-based flue gas desulfurization sludge disposal pond. J. Environ. Qual. 24:286-292.
7. Al-Abed, S.R., G. Jegadeesan, K.G. Scheckel, and T. Tolaymat. 2008. Speciation, characterization, and mobility of As, Se, and Hg in flue gas desulphurization residues. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:1693-1698.
8. Alberts, J.J., M.C. Newman, and D.W. Evans. 1985. Seasonal variations of trace elements in dissolved and suspended loads for coal ash ponds and pond effluents. Water Air Soil Pollut. 26:111-128.
9. Arditsoglou, A., C. Petaloti, E. Terzi, M. Sofoniou, and C. Samara. 2004. Size distribution of trace elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fly ashes generated in Greek lignite-fired power plants. Sci. Total Environ. 323:153-167.
10. Arthur, M.A., G. Rubin, R.E. Schneider, and L.H. Weinstein. 1992a. Uptake and accumulation of selenium by terrestrial plants growing on a coal flyash landfill: Part 1. Corn. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 11:541-547.
11. Arthur, M.A., G. Rubin, R.E. Schneider, and L.H. Weinstein. 1992b. Uptake and accumulation of selenium by terrestrial plants growing on a coal fly ash landfill: Part 3. Forbs and grasses. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 11:1301-1306.
12. Arthur, M.A., G. Rubin, P.B. Woodbury, R.E. Schneider, and L.H. Weinstein. 1992c. Uptake and accumulation of selenium by terrestrial plants growing on a coal fly ash landfill: Part 2. Forage and root crops. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 11:1289-1299.
13. Asokan, P., M. Saxena, and S.R. Asolekar. 2005. Coal combustion residues: Environmental implications and recycling potentials. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 43:239-262.
14. Barnes, D.I., and L.K.A. Sear. 2006. Ash utilisation from coal-based power plants. In Proc. Int. Coal Ash Technol. Conf., AshTech 2006, Birmingham, United Kingdom. 15-17 May 2006. United Kingdom Qual. Ash Assoc., Wolverhampton, UK.
15. Barton, C., L. Paddock, C. Romanek, S. Maharaj, and J. Seaman. 2005a. Metal attenuation processes in a landfill containing coal combustion waste: Implications for remediation. Environ. Geosci. 12:45-55.
16. Barton, C.D., D.H. Marx, D.C. Adriano, B.J. Koo, L. Newman, S.J. Czapka, and J. Blake. 2005b. Phytostabilization of a landfill containing coal combustion waste. Environ. Geosci. 12:251-265.
17. Bem, E.M., H. Bem, and P. Wieczorkowski. 1998. Studies of radionuclide concentrations in surface soil in and around fly ash disposal sites. Sci. Total Environ. 220:215-222.
18. Benito, Y., M. Ruiz, P. Cosmen, and J.L. Merino. 2001. Study of leachates obtained from the disposal of fly ash from PFBC and AFBC processes. Chem. Eng. J. 84:167-171.
19. Bittner, J., S. Gasiorowski, and F. Hrach. 2001. Removing ammonia from fly ash. Paper 15. In Proc. 2001 Int. Ash Utilization Symposium. 22-24 October, 2001. Center for Applied Energy Research, Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington.
20. Blume, H.-P. (ed.) 2004. Handbook of soil protection. (In German.) Ecomed, Landsberg am Lech, Germany.
21. Bothe, J.V., and P.W. Brown. 1999. Arsenic immobilization by calcium arsenate formation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33:3806-3811.
22. Brieger, G., J.R. Wells, and R.D. Hunter. 1992. Plant and animal species composition and heavy metal content in fly ash ecosystems. Water Air Soil Pollut. 63:87-103.
23. Bryant, J.C., and A.K. Oden. 1995. pH control of ash pond effluent at South Carolina electric and gas company Wateree station. p. 309-314. In Proc. 57th Am. Power Conf., Chicago. 18-20 April 1995. Illinois Inst. of Technology, Technology Center, Chicago, IL.
24. Cairns, J., K.L. Dickson, and J.S. Crossman. 1972. The biological recovery of the Clinch River following a fly ash pond spill. p. 182-192. In Proc. 25th Ind. Waste Conf, Lafayette, IN. 5-7 May 1970. Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN.
25. Carlson, C.L., and D.C. Adriano. 1993. Environmental impacts of coal combustion residues. J. Environ. Qual. 22:227-247.
26. Castán Broto, V., P. Tabbush, K. Burningham, L. Elghali, and D. Edwards. 2007. Coal ash and risk: Four social interpretations of a pollution landscape. Landsc. Res. 32:481-497.
27. Cheng, C.-M., P. Hack, P. Chu, Y.-N. Chang, T.-Y. Lin, C.-S. Ko, P.-H. Chiang, C.-C. He, Y.-M. Lai, and W.-P. Pan. 2009. Partitioning of mercury, arsenic, selenium, boron, and chloride in a full-scale coal combustion process equipped with selective catalytic reduction, electrostatic precipitation, and flue gas desulfurization systems. Energy Fuels 23:4805-4816.
28. Cherry, D.S., and R.K. Guthrie. 1979. The uptake of chemical elements from coal ash and settling basin effluent by primary producers: II. Relation between concentrations in ash deposits and tissues of grasses growing on the ash. Sci. Total Environ. 13:27-31.
29. Chu, T.Y.J., R.J. Ruane, and P.A. Krenkel. 1978. Characterization and reuse of ash pond effluents in coal-fired power plants. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 50:2494-2508.
30. Clark, R.B., K.D. Ritchey, and V.C. Baligar. 2001. Benefits and constraints for use of FGD products on agricultural land. Fuel 80:821-828.
31. Clark, W.I. 1908. The use of anthracite coal ash as a surgical dressing. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 50:868.
32. Clarke, L.B. 1993. The fate of trace elements during coal combustion and gasification: An overview. Fuel 72:731-736.
33. Davis, R.E., R.W. Carlson, J.W. Kelly, and A.G. Davis. 1937. Properties of cements and concretes containing fly ash. J. Am. Concrete Inst. 33:577-612.
34. Davison, R.L., D.F.S. Natusch, J.R. Wallace, and C.A. Evans, Jr. 1974. Trace elements in fly ash: Dependence of concentration on particle size. Environ. Sci. Technol. 8:1107-1113.
35. Dellantonio, A., W.J. Fitz, H. Custovic, F. Repmann, B.U. Schneider, H. Grunewald, V. Gruber, Z. Zgorelec, N. Zerem, C. Carter, M. Markovic, M. Puschenreiter, and W.W. Wenzel. 2008. Environmental risks of farmed and barren alkaline coal ash landfills in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Environ. Pollut. 153:677-686.
36. Deuser, W.G., K. Emeis, V. Ittekkot, and E.T. Degens. 1983. Fly-ash particles intercepted in the deep Sargasso Sea. Nature 305:216-218. (Pubitemid 13023885)
37. Dewes, H.F., L.M. McLeay, and C.G. Harfoot. 1995. Fly-ash, basic slag and Glenbrook slag toxicity in cattle. N. Z. Vet. J. 43:104-109.
38. Donahoe, R.J. 2004. Secondary mineral formation in coal combustion by-product disposal facilities: Implications for trace element sequestration. p. 641-658. In R. Giere and P. Stille (ed.) Energy, waste and the environment: A geochemical perspective. Geological Society of London, London.
39. Dorman, L., J.W. Castle, and J.H. Rodgers. 2009. Performance of a pilot-scale constructed wetland system for treating simulated ash basin water. Chemosphere 75:939-947.
40. Drebenstedt, C. 1994. 30 Years of experience in ameliorating brownfield soils by using lignite coal ashes in Lusatia. (In German.) Braunkohle 7:40-45.
41. Dreesen, D.R., and L.E. Wangen. 1981. Elemental composition of saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) impacted by effluents from a coal-fired power plant. J. Environ. Qual. 10:410-416.
42. Dzeletovic, Z.S., and R. Filipovic. 1995. Grain characteristics of crops grown on power plant ash and bottom slag deposit. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 13:105-113.
43. Dziubek, A.M., and A.L. Kowal. 1983. Treatment of alkaline wastewater from lignite-fired power plants. Water Sci. Technol. 15:155-162.
44. EIA. 2008. Emission of greenhouse gases in the United States 2007. Energy Information Administration, USDOE, Washington, DC.
45. Eikmann, T., and A. Kloke. 1993. Target-oriented land use and land protection guidelines for pollutants in soils. p. 1-26. In D. Rosenkranz, G. Einsele, and H.M. Harress (ed.) Soil protection, handbook on measures and recommendations how to protect, conserve and remediate soils, landscape and groundwater. (In German.) Erich Schmidt, Berlin.
46. El-Mogazi, D., D.J. Lisk, and L.H. Weinstein. 1988. A review of physical, chemical, and biological properties of fly ash and effects on agricultural ecosystems. Sci. Total Environ. 74:1-37.
47. Elmquist, M., Z. Zencak, and O. Gustafsson. 2007. A 700 year sediment record of black carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons near the EMEP air monitoring station in Aspvreten, Sweden. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41:6926-6932.
48. EU. 1999. Council directive 1999/29/EC on the undesirable substances and products in animal nutrition. Council of the European Union, Brussels.
49. EU. 2001. Council directive EC 466/2001 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Council of the European Union, Brussels.
50. Finkelman, R.B., W. Orem, V. Castranova, A.T. Tatu, H.E. Belkin, B. Zheng, H.E. Lerch, S.V. Maharaj, and A.L. Bates. 2002. Health impacts of coal and coal use: Possible solutions. Int. J. Coal Geol. 50:425-443.
51. Furr, A.K., T.F. Parkinson, R.A. Hinrichs, D.R. Van Campen, C.A. Bache, W.H. Gutenmann, L.E. St. John, Jr., I.S. Pakkala, and D.J. Lisk. 1977. National survey of elements and radioactivity in fly ashes. Absorption of elements by cabbage grown in fly ash-soil mixtures. Environ. Sci. Technol. 11:1194-1201.
52. Gangl, G. 2003. Recommendations for the prevention of dust evolvement at ash disposal sites. (In German.) Dipl. thesis. Institute of Urban Water Management and Landscape Water Engineering, Technical Univ., Graz, Austria.
53. Georgakopoulos, A., A. Filippidis, A. Kassoli-Fournaraki, A. Iordanidis, J.L. Fernandez-Turiel, J.F. Llorens, and D. Gimeno. 2002. Environmentally important elements in fly ashes and their leachates of the power stations of Greece. Energy Sources 24:83-91. (Pubitemid 34566420)
54. Gilmour, M.I., S. O'Connor, C.A.J. Dick, C.A. Miller, and W.P. Linak. 2004. Differential pulmonary inflammation and in vitro cytotoxicity of size-fractionated fly ash particles from pulverized coal combustion. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 54:286-295.
55. Gohda, H., H. Hatano, T. Hanai, K. Miyaji, N. Takahashi, Z. Sun, Z. Dong, H. Yu, T. Cao, I.D. Albrecht, K.P. Naikwadi, and F.W. Karasek. 1993. GC and GC-MS analysis of polychlorinated dioxins, dibenzofurans and aromatic hydrocarbons in fly ash from coal-burning works. Chemosphere 27:9-15. (Pubitemid 23201158)
56. Goodarzi, F., and F.E. Huggins. 2005a. Speciation of arsenic in feed coals and their ash byproducts from Canadian power plants burning sub-bituminous and bituminous coals. Energy Fuels 19:905-915. (Pubitemid 40843380)
57. Goodarzi, F., and F.E. Huggins. 2005b. Speciation of chromium in feed coals and ash byproducts from Canadian power plants burning subbituminous and bituminous coals. Energy Fuels 19:2500-2508. (Pubitemid 41787188)
58. Gupta, A.K., and S. Sinha. 2008. Decontamination and/or revegetation of fly ash dykes through naturally growing plants. J. Hazard. Mater. 153:1078-1087.
59. Gutenmann, W.H., C.A. Bache, W.D. Youngs, and D.J. Lisk. 1976. Selenium in fly ash. Science 191:966-967.
60. Hansen, Y., P.J. Notten, and J.G. Petrie. 2002. The environmental impact of ash management in coal-based power generation. Appl. Geochem. 17:1131-1141.
61. Hassett, D.J., L.V. Heebink, and D.F. Pflughoeft-Hassett. 2004. Potential for mercury vapor release from coal combustion by-products. Fuel Process. Technol. 85:613-620.
62. Hoover, K.L., and T.A. Rightnour. 2002. Design approaches for passive treatment of coal combustion byproduct leachate. p. 417-429. In M.M. Maroto-Valer et al. (ed.) Environmental challenges and greenhouse gas control for fossil fuel utilization in the 21st century. Kluwer Academic, Plenum Publ., New York.
63. Hopkins, W.A., M.T. Mendonca, C.L. Rowe, and J.D. Congdon. 1998. Elevated trace element concentrations in Southern Toads, Bufo terrestris, exposed to coal combustion waste. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 35:325-329.
64. Huggins, F.E., M. Najih, and G.P. Huffman. 1999. Direct speciation of chromium in coal combustion by-products by X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy. Fuel 78:233-242.
65. Huggins, F.E., C.L. Senior, P. Chu, K. Ladwig, and G.P. Huffman. 2007. Selenium and arsenic speciation in fly ash from full-scale coal-burning utility plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41:3284-3289.
66. Huggins, F.E., N. Shah, G.P. Huffman, and J.D. Robertson. 2000. XAFS spectroscopic characterization of elements in combustion ash and fine particulate matter. Fuel Process. Technol. 65-66:203-218.
67. IAEA. 2003. Extent of environmental contamination by naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) and technological options for mitigation. Tech. Rep. Series 419. Int. Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
68. IEA. 2006. World energy outlook. International Energy Agency, Paris.
69. IEA. 2007a. Energy balances of OECD countries 2004-2005. International Energy Agency, Paris.
70. IEA. 2007b. Energy balances of non-OECD countries 2004-2005. International Energy Agency, Paris.
71. Insam, H., and E. Stalljann. 1989. Reclamation of fly-ash dumps: II. Microbiological aspects. Z. Vegetationstechnik 12:90-92.
72. Iwashita, A., Y. Sakaguchi, T. Nakajima, H. Takanashi, A. Ohki, and S. Kambara. 2005. Leaching characteristics of boron and selenium for various coal fly ashes. Fuel 84:479-485. (Pubitemid 40003617)
73. Jackson, B.P., and W.P. Miller. 1998. Arsenic and selenium speciation in coal fly ash extracts by ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 13:1107-1112.
74. Jackson, B.P., and W.P. Miller. 2000. Soil solution chemistry of a fly ash-, poultry litter-, and sewage sludge-amended soil. J. Environ. Qual. 29:430-436.
75. Johnson, J. 2007. Dealing with CO2 from coal. Chem. Eng. News 85:48-51.
76. Kingston, H.M., R. Cain, D. Huoc, and G.M. Mizanur Rahman. 2005. Determination and evaluation of hexavalent chromium in power plant coal combustion by-products and cost-effective environmental remediation solutions using acid mine drainage. J. Environ. Monit. 7:899-905.
77. Kukier, U., and M.E. Sumner. 1996. Boron availability to plants from coal combustion by-products. Water Air Soil Pollut. 87:93-110. (Pubitemid 26121198)
78. Ladwig, K., B. Hensel, and D. Wallschlager. 2005. Speciation and attenuation of arsenic and selenium at coal combustion by-product management facilities. Electric Power Research Inst., Palo Alto, CA.
79. Laperche, V., and S.J. Traina. 1999. Flue gas desulfurization by-product weathering by acidic mine drainage. J. Environ. Qual. 28:1733-1741.
80. Lehrsch, G.A., and D.E. Baker. 1989. Fly ash erodibility. J. Soil Water Conserv. 44:624-627.
81. Lighty, J.S., J.M. Veranth, and A.F. Sarofim. 2000. Combustion aerosols: Factors governing their size and composition and implications to human health. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 50:1565-1618.
82. Liu, G., H. Zhang, L. Gao, L. Zheng, and Z. Peng. 2004. Petrological and mineralogical characterizations and chemical composition of coal ashes from power plants in Yanzhou mining district, China. Fuel Process. Technol. 85:1635-1646.
83. Liu, K.L., R. Heltsley, D.H. Zou, W.P. Pan, and J.T. Riley. 2002. Polyaromatic hydrocarbon emissions in fly ashes from an atmospheric fluidized bed combustor using thermal extraction coupled with GC/TOF-MS. Energy Fuels 16:330-337.
84. Lohner, T.W., R.J. Reash, V.E. Willet, and L.A. Rose. 2001. Assessment of tolerant Sunfish populations (Lepomis sp.) inhabiting selenium-laden coal ash effluents: 1. Hematological and population level assessment. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 50:203-216.
85. Luijk, R., C. Dorland, F. Kapteijn, and H.A.J. Govers. 1993. The formation of PCDDs and PCDFs in the catalysed combustion of carbon: Implications for coal combustion. Fuel 72:343-347.
86. Marovic, G., J. Sencar, J. Kovac, and I. Prlic. 2004. Improvement of the radiological environmental situation due to remedial actions at a coal-fired power plant. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 261:451-455.
87. Mayes, W.M., P.L. Younger, and J. Aumonier. 2008. Hydrogeochemistry of alkaline steel slag leachates in the UK. Water Air Soil Pollut. 195:35-50.
88. McBride, M.B., B.K. Richards, T. Steenhuis, and G. Spiers. 2000. Molybdenum uptake by forage crops grown on sewage sludge-amended soils in the field and greenhouse. J. Environ. Qual. 29:848-854.
89. McMinn, J.W., C.R. Berry, and J.H. Horton. 1982. Ash basin reclamation with commercial forest species. Reclam. Reveg. Res. 1:359-365.
90. Michalski, S.R., and R.E. Gray. 2001. Ash disposal-mine fires-environment: An Indian dilemma. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 60:23-29.
91. Miravet, R., J.F. Lopez-Sanchez, and R. Rubio. 2006. Leachability and analytical speciation of antimony in coal fly ash. Anal. Chim. Acta 576:200-206.
92. Moreno, N., X. Querol, J.M. Andres, K. Stanton, M. Towler, H. Nugteren, M. Janssen-Jurkovicova, and R. Jones. 2005. Physico-chemical characteristics of European pulverized coal combustion fly ashes. Fuel 84:1351-1363. (Pubitemid 40654856)
93. Mulhern, D.W., R.J. Robel, J.C. Furness, and D.L. Hensley. 1989. Vegetation of waste disposal areas at a coal-fired power plant in Kansas. J. Environ. Qual. 18:285-292.
94. Munshower, F.F. 1994. Practical handbook of disturbed land revegetation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
95. Murarka, I.P., S.V. Mattigod, and R.F. Keefer. 1993. An overview of electric power research related to effective management of coal combustion residues. In R.F. Keefer and K.S. Sajwan (ed.) Trace elements in coal and coal combustion residues. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
96. Neal, C., K.K. Fox, M. Harrow, and M. Neal. 1998. Boron in the major UK rivers entering the North Sea. Sci. Total Environ. 210/211:41-51. (Pubitemid 28177374)
97. NRC. 2006. Managing coal combustion residues in mines. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
98. Oster, A., and M. Eyll-Vetter. 2001. Disposal technology and disposal management in the Rhine area. (In German.) Surf. Min. Braunkohle. 53:167-176.
99. Pavlovic, P., M. Mitrovic, and L. Djurdjevic. 2004. An ecophysiological study of plants growing on the fly ash deposits from the "Nikola Tesla-A" thermal power station in Serbia. Environ. Manage. 33:654-663.
100. Pei-wei, G., L. Xiao-lin, L. Hui, L. Xiaoyan, and H. Jie. 2007. Effects of fly ash on the properties of environmentally friendly dam concrete. Fuel 86:1208-1211. (Pubitemid 46096488)
101. Reash, R.J. 2004. Dissolved and total copper in a coal ash effluent and receiving stream: Assessment of in situ biological effects. Environ. Monit. Assess. 96:203-220.
102. Reddy, K.J. 2000. Application of carbon dioxide in remediation of contaminants: A new approach. p. 829-838. In D. L. Wise et al. (ed.) Remediation engineering of contaminated soils. Marcel Dekker, New York.
103. 2): Accelerated mineral carbonation. In IOP (ed.) Climate change: Global risks, challenges, and decisions. IOP Publishing, Copenhagen.
104. Rees, W.J., and G.H. Sidrak. 1955. Plant growth on fly ash. Nature 176:352.
105. Robinson, P. 2004. Partizansk coal ash dam break and spill: Observations. Available at http://www.sric.org/mining/docs/Partizansk%20Coal%20 Ash%20Dam%20Break%20and%20Spill.pdf (verified 9 Feb. 2010). Southwest Research and Information Center, Albuquerque, NM.
106. Rose, N.L., S. Juggins, and J. Watt. 1999. The characterisation of carbonaceous fly-ash particles from major European fossil-fuel types and applications to environmental samples. Atmos. Environ. 33:2699-2713.
107. Rowe, C.L. 1998. Elevated standard metabolic rate in a freshwater shrimp (Palaemonetes paludosus) exposed to trace element-rich coal combustion waste. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 121:299-304.
108. Rowe, C.L., W.A. Hopkins, and J.D. Congdon. 2002. Ecotoxicological implications of aquatic disposal of coal combustion residues in the United States: A review. Environ. Monit. Assess. 80:207-276.
109. Sample, B.E., and G.W. Suter. 2002. Screening evaluation of the ecological risks to terrestrial wildlife associated with coal ash disposal site. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 8:637-656.
110. Scanlon, D.H., and J.C. Duggan. 1979. Growth and element uptake of woody plants on fly ash. Environ. Sci. Technol. 13:311-315.
111. Schimming, C.-G. 2004. Metals. (In German.) p. 325-362. In H.-P. Blume (ed.) Handbook of soil protection. (In German.) Ecomed, Landsberg am Lech, Germany.
112. Schnappinger, M.G., D.C. Martens, and O.C. Plank. 1975. Zinc availability as influenced by application of fly ash to soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 9:258-261.
113. 2(g). Appl. Geochem. 7:481-492.
114. Schwab, A.P., M.B. Tomecek, and P.D. Ohlenbusch. 1991. Plant availability of lead, cadmium, and boron in amended coal ash. Water Air Soil Pollut. 57-58:297-306.
115. Schwikowski, M., C. Barbante, T. Doering, H.W. Gaeggeler, C. Boutron, U. Schotterer, L. Tobler, K. Van De Velde, C. Ferrari, G. Cozzi, K. Rosman, and P. Cescon. 2004. Post-17th-century changes of European lead emissions recorded in high-altitude Alpine snow and ice. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:957-964.
116. Shah, P., V. Strezov, K. Prince, and P.F. Nelson. 2008. Speciation of As, Cr, Se, and Hg under coal fired power station conditions. Fuel 87:1859-1869.
117. Shah, P., V. Strezov, C. Stevanov, and P.F. Nelson. 2007. Speciation of arsenic and selenium in coal combustion products. Energy Fuels 21:506-512. (Pubitemid 46585049)
118. Shoji, T., F.E. Huggins, G.P. Huffman, W.P. Linak, and C.A. Miller. 2002. XAFS spectroscopy analysis of selected elements in fine particulate matter derived from coal combustion. Energy Fuels 16:325-329. (Pubitemid 34554679)
119. Sloss, L.L., A.K. Hjalmarsson, H.N. Soud, L.M. Campbell, D.K. Stone, G.S. Shareef, T. Emmel, M. Maibodi, C.D. Livengood, and J. Markussen. 1992. Nitrogen oxides control technology factbook. Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, NJ.
120. Stoewsand, G.S., J.L. Anderson, L.H. Weinstein, J.F. Osmeloski, W.H. Gutenmann, and D.J. Lisk. 1990. Selenium in tissues of rats fed rutabagas grown on soil covering a coal fly ash landfill. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 44:681-685.
121. Subramanian, B., S.K. Prabu, and A. Mahadevan. 1990. Influence of thermal power station effluents on hydrobiology of seawater. Water Air Soil Pollut. 53:131-137.
122. 2 with clean-coal technology ash to reduce trace-element mobility. Water Air Soil Pollut. 84:385-398.
123. Tishmack, J.K., and P.E. Burns. 2004. The chemistry and mineralogy of coal and coal combustion products. p. 223-246. In R. Giere and P. Stille (ed.) Energy, waste and the environment- a geochemical perspective. Geological Society of London, London.
124. Turner, R.R. 1981. Oxidation state of arsenic in coal ash leachate. Environ. Sci. Technol. 15:1062-1066.
125. Turner, R.R., P. Lowry, M. Levin, S.E. Lindberg, and T. Tamura. 1982. Leachability and aqueous speciation of selected trace constituents of coal fly ash. Report EA-2588. Electric Power Research Inst., Palo Alto, CA.
126. 2 sequestration potential via mineral carbonation in fly ash from lignite combustion in Poland. Energy Procedia 1:4873-4879.
127. Unipede (ed.) 1997. Unipede-Eurelectric: Coal ash reference report. Unipede, Paris.
128. Unipede (ed.) 1998. Unipede-Eurelectric: Wastewater and water residue management-Regulations. Unipede, Paris.
129. USGS. 1997. Radioactive elements in coal fly ash: Abundance, forms, and environmental significance. USGS Fact Sheet FS-163-197 USGS, Denver, CO.
130. USGS. 2002. Characterization and modes of occurrence of elements and fly ash: An integrated approach. USGS Fact Sheet 0038-102 USGS, Denver, CO.
131. Vajpayee, P., U.N. Rai, S.K. Choudhary, R.D. Tripathi, and S.N. Singh. 2000. Management of fly ash landfills with Cassia surattensis Burm.: A case study. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 65:675-682.
132. Van Rensburg, L., R.I. De Sousa Correia, J. Booysen, and M. Ginster. 1998. Revegetation on a coal fine ash disposal site in South Africa. J. Environ. Qual. 27:1479-1486.
133. Van Rensburg, L., T.L. Morgenthal, H. Van Hamburg, and M.D. Michael. 2003. A comparative analysis of the vegetation and topsoil cover nutrient status between two similarly rehabilitated ash disposal sites. Environmentalist 23:285-295. (Pubitemid 39001427)
134. Vassilev, S.V., R. Menendez, D. Alvarez, M. Diaz-Somoano, and M.R. Martinez-Tarazona. 2003. Phase-mineral and chemical composition of coal fly ashes as a basis for their multicomponent utilization: 1. Characterization of feed coals and fly ashes. Fuel 82:1793-1811.
135. Vassilev, S.V., C.G. Vassileva, A.I. Karayigit, Y. Bulut, A. Alastuey, and X. Querol. 2005. Phase-mineral and chemical composition of composite samples from feed coals, bottom ashes and fly ashes at the Soma power station, Turkey. Int. J. Coal Geol. 61:35-63.
136. VDI. 1996. Measuring of particulate precipitations: Determination of the dust precipitation with collecting pots made of glass (Bergerhoff method) or plastic. VDI 2119/2. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Düsseldorf.
137. Viezzoli, A., J.P. Cull, and D. Massie. 2006. Mapping fly-ash water pond leakage with TEM and IP data at Loy Yang coal-mine (Australia). Near Surf. Geophys. 4:305-311. (Pubitemid 44501351)
138. Wang, H.M., T. Wang, H. Mallhi, Y. Liu, H. Ban, and K. Ladwig. 2007. The role of ammonia on mercury leaching from coal fly ash. Chemosphere 69:1586-1592.
139. Wang, J.M., H. Ban, X.J. Teng, H. Wang, and K. Ladwig. 2006. Impacts of pH and ammonia on the leaching of Cu(II) and Cd(II) from coal fly ash. Chemosphere 64:1892-1898. (Pubitemid 44092948)
140. Weinstein, L.H., J.F. Osmeloski, M. Rutzke, A.O. Beers, J.B. McCahan, C.A. Bache, and D.J. Lisk. 1989. Elemental analysis of grasses and legumes growing on soil covering coal fly ash landfill sites. J. Food Saf. 9:291-300.
141. Woodbury, P.B., G. Rubin, D.C. McCune, L.H. Weinstein, and E.F. Neuhauser. 1999. Assessing trace element uptake by vegetation on a coal fly ash landfill. Water Air Soil Pollut. 111:271-286. (Pubitemid 29177234)
142. Yossifova, M., S. Valceva, and E. Djourova. 2007. Mineralogy and environmental geochemistry of lagooned ashes resulted from combustion of Maritza East lignite, Bulgaria. Int. J. Coal Geol. 71:287-302.
143. Zandi, M., and N.V. Russell. 2007. Design of a leaching test framework for coal fly ash accounting for environmental conditions. Environ. Monit. Assess. 131:509-526.
144. Zielinski, R.A., and J.R. Budahn. 1998. Radionuclides in fly ash and bottom ash: Improved characterization based on radiography and low energy gamma-ray spectrometry. Fuel 77:259-267.
145. Zikeli, S., R. Jahn, and M. Kastler. 2002. Initial soil development in lignite ash landfills and settling ponds in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 165:530-536.