A shift in Japan's stance on indigenous rights, and its implications

International Journal on Minority and Group Rights

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 355-373

  McGrogan, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ainu; Asia; Indigenous rights; Japan; Okinawa; Ryukyuans; Securitization; United Nations treaty bodies

Indexed keywords

ACCULTURATION; CULTURAL RELATIONS; HUMAN RIGHTS; INDIGENOUS POPULATION; UNITED NATIONS;

ASIA; JAPAN; OKINAWA [RYUKYU ISLANDS]; RYUKYU ISLANDS;

EID: 77952086438     PISSN: 13854879     EISSN: 15718115     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157181110X495935     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. See e.g. K. Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan (Routledge, London, 1992)
2. and M. Weiner, 'Discourses of Race, Nation and Empire in pre-1945 Japan', 18:3 Ethnic and Racial Studies (1995) p. 433.
3. Minister for Economy and Industry Hiranuma Takeo and Suzuki Muneo, respectively, in 'Statement of Suzuki Muneo and the Minister for Economy and Industry Hiranuma on Racial Homogeneity', Statement to the Foreign Press Club, Hokkaido Shimbun , 3 July 2001, available at < www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/News/ Stock/20010703/0023.200107033180.html > (accessed 10 October 2009).
4. See infra note 23.
5. UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Northeast Asia (1993), < www.helsinki.fi/∼tasalmin/ nasia-report.html#Ainu > (visited on 16 November 2009).
6. These figures were provided in Japan's First and Second Periodic Reports to the Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination , 13 January 2000 (UN Doc. CERD/C/350/Add.2), para. 11-13.
7. It is worThnoting that Hokkaido is one of the poorest of Japan's prefectures; so the corresponding rates are likely to be even more pronounced when compared to the national average.
8. For example, the first report Japan made to the CCPR committee after ratification of the ICCPR contained the assertion: "minorities of the kind mentioned in the Covenant do not exist in Japan". Japan's First Periodic Report to the CCPR Committee (UN Doc. CCPR/C/10/Add.1), 14 November 1980.
9. Hiranuma and Suzuki, supra note 2.
10. Japan's First and Second Periodic Reports to the CERD , supra note 5, para. 18.
11. The Hokkaido Utari Kyoukai was the largest Ainu association in Japan. (' Utari ' means 'comrade' in the Ainu language.) The organisation changed its name to the Hokkaido Ainu Association [ Hokkaido Ainu Kyoukai ] in April 2009.
12. Act for the Promotion of Ainu Culture and for the Dissemination of Knowledge of the Traditions of the Ainu [ Ainu bunka no shinkou narabi ni Ainu no dentou nado ni kansuru chishiki no fukyuu oyobi keihatsu ni kansuru houritsu ], Act No. 52 of 1997, May 1997.
13. It is extensively discussed (and roundly criticised) in e.g. R. Siddle, 'An Epoch-making Event? The 1997 Ainu Cultural Promotion Act and Its Impact', 14:3 Japan Forum (2002) pp. 405-423;
14. also N. Ogasawara, ' Ainu bunka hou shikou kara go nen ', 707 Sekai (2002) p. 284 (in Japanese).
15. Kayano et al. v. Hokkaido Expropriation Committee , Judgment of the Sapporo District Court, 27 March, 1997, 1598 Hanrei Jihou 33; 938 Hanrei Times 75.
16. English translation available at 38 International Legal Materials (1999) pp. 397-429. The relevant sections are C.3.a.iii and C.3.b.iii.
17. M. Levin, 'Essential Commodities and Racial Justice: Using Constitutional Protections of Japan's Indigenous Ainu People to Inform Understanding of the United States and Japan', 33:2 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics (2001) p. 467.
18. Wajin refers to people of Japanese ancestry as a distinguished from other ethnic groups in Japan.
19. R. Siddle, 'Ainu: Japan's Indigenous People', in M. Weiner (ed.), Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity (Routledge, London, 1997) p. 44.
20. Utari Current Lifestyle Survey , 2006, available at (visited 16 November 2009) (in Japanese).
21. B. Poisson, The Ainu of Japan (Lerner Publications, Minneapolis, 2002) p. 5, gives a figure of 200,000. Population estimates are difficult given the tendency on the part of many Japanese citizens to disguise Ainu ancestry.
22. Siddle, supra note 12, p. 414.
23. Abe Kazushi, vice director of the Hokkaido Ainu Association, has linked the realisation of Article 39 of the UN Indigenous Peoples Declaration in particular to boosting Ainu ethnic pride. See S. Nakagawa, 'The Ainu Tomorrow', Mainichi Shimbun [Hokkaido morning edition], 28 July 2009, (in Japanese) (visited 10 October 2009): "[Citing Abe] If [governmental] assistance for development is realized, the number of people wishing to join the association will definitely increase. Probably even those who currently conceal their Ainu identity will come to look on it wiThpride."
24. Litigation was filed by Ainu activists at the Sapporo District Court again in 1999, but it was ultimately rejected. See M. Levin and T. Tsunemoto, 'A Comment on the Ainu Trust Assets Litigation in Japan', 39 Tulsa Law Review (2003-2004) pp. 399-402 for an overview.
25. Japan's Explanation of Vote, Agenda Item 68, 61st Session of the United Nations General Assembly, 2006. The interpretation through the lens of individual rights was vital to the Japanese government, given its strong stance against the concept of group rights.
26. Resolution to Acknowledge the Ainu are an Indigenous People, 6 June 2008. The Japanese version is available at (visited on 21 October 2009).
27. " Dokushin no gengo, shukyou ya bunka no dokushinsei wo yuu suru senshu-minzoku ."
28. The Ainu seisaku no arikata ni kan suru yuushikisha kondankai.
29. "[S] enshu ken no naiyou nado wo kento suru houshin. " See K. Chichibu, 'First Ever Government Resolution Recognising that "the Ainu are an Indigenous People"', Mainichi Shimbun [evening edition], 6 June 2008, (in Japanese).
30. K. Chichibu, 'Ainu Advisory Council: Report Released', Mainichi Shimbun [Hokkaido Morning Edition], 30 July 2009, (in Japanese)
31. See R. Goodman, and D. Jinks, 'How to Influence States: Socialization and International Human Rights Law', 54 Duke Law Journal (2004-2005) pp. 621-704 for a detailed examination of these processes.
32. See R. Goodman, and D. Jinks, 'How to Influence States: Socialization and International Human Rights Law', 54 Duke Law Journal (2004-2005), Ibid ., p. 640.
33. See R. Goodman, and D. Jinks, 'How to Influence States: Socialization and International Human Rights Law', 54 Duke Law Journal (2004-2005), Ibid ., p. 641.
34. See R. Goodman, and D. Jinks, 'How to Influence States: Socialization and International Human Rights Law', 54 Duke Law Journal (2004-2005), Ibid ., p. 641.
35. See R. Goodman and D. Jinks,'Towards an Institutional Theory of Sovereignty', 55 Stanford Law Review (2003) pp. 1749-1788.
36. See Goodman and Jinks, supra note 28, p. 648
37. citing studies by e.g. Frank, Meyer, Eyre and Suchman, and Finnemore.
38. J. Boli-Bennett and J. Meyer, 'The Ideology of Childhood and the State: Rules Distinguishing Children in National Constitutions 1870-1970', 43 American Sociology Review (1978) p. 805.
39. See also Goodman and Jinks, supra note 28, pp. 649-650.
40. Goodman and Jinks, supra note 28, p. 650
41. citing F. Ramirez et al. , 'The Changing Logic of Political Citizenship: Cross-National Acquisition of Women's Rights, 1890 to 1990', 62 American Sociology Review (1997) p. 735.
42. See e.g. K. Port, 'The Japanese International Law "Revolution": International Human Rights Law and Its Impact in Japan', 28 Stanford International Law Journal (1991-1992) esp. pp. 145-150, 155-160.
43. Ainu minzoku no kenri kakuritsu wo kangaeru giin kai.
44. See e.g. Chichibu, supra note 26.
45. Resolution to Acknowledge the Ainu are an Indigenous People, supra note 23, preamble.
46. One can compare Japan's first report to the CCPR Committee, in which (as we have seen, supra note 5) it is declared that "minorities of the kind mentioned in the Covenant do not exist in Japan", to its most recent, where six paragraphs are devoted to "Policies Related to the Promotion of Ainu Culture" ( Japan's FifThPeriodic Report , UN Doc. CCPR/C/JPN/5, 25 April 2007).
47. See e.g. K. Call, 'Southern Kuriles or Northern Territories? Resolving the Russo-Japanese Border Dispute', Brigham Young University Law Review (1992) pp. 727-758, for an overview of the dispute from a legal standpoint. The Kuriles are commonly referred to in Japanese as the 'Northern Territories'.
48. See K. Dietz, 'Ainu in the International Arena', in W. Fitzhugh and C. Debreuil (eds.), Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People (University of Washington Press, 1999) p. 359.
49. There has been some pointed questioning on this matter in the Diet's Lower House in recent years, especially on the part of Member Suzuki Muneo. See e.g. 'Question Regarding the Indigenousness of the Ainu People in the Northern Territories', Minutes of the House of Representatives , 9 October 2008, (in Japanese) (visited 16 November 2009).
50. M. Suzuki, 'Ainu Kokkai Ketsugi' ha hoppou ryoudo mondai kaiketsu ni tsunagaru [The "Ainu Diet Resolution" is Connected to the Northern Territories Problem]', in Y. Kobayashi (ed.), Okinawa to Ainu no Shinjitsu [The TruThabout the Ainu and Okinawa] (Ookura Shuppan, Tokyo, 2009) p. 50.
51. See e.g. A. Parrish, 'Changing Territoriality, Fading Sovereignty, and the Development of Indigenous Rights', 31 American Indian Law Review (2006-2007) pp. 291-314.
52. On the 'securitization' of State-minority relations more generally, see e.g. O. Waever, 'Securitization and Desecuritization', in R. Lipshutz (ed.), On Security (Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 46.
53. On self-identification and the Asian indigenous issue generally see B. Kingsbury, 'Indigenous Peoples in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asia Controversy', 92 American Journal of International Law (1998) pp. 414-457. (Pubitemid 128124145)
54. Regarding Okinawan history and ethnicity, see K. Taira, 'Troubled National Identity: The Ryukyuans/Okinawans', in Weiner, supra note 16, p. 140;
55. also A. Stewart, 'Kayano vs. Hokkaido Expropriation Committee Revisited: Recognition of Ryukyuans as a Cultural Minority under the ICCPR, An Alternative Paradigm for Okinawan Demilitarization', 4 Asia-Pacific Law and Policy Journal (2003) pp. 383-429.
56. The Ministry of Defence figures are available at < www.clearing.mod.go.jp/hakusho-data/ 2006/2006/html/i4262000.html > (in Japanese) (visited 16 November 2009).
57. See e.g. The Shape of US Military Bases in Okinawa , Report of the Okinawan Prefectural Government, 3 September 2004, < www3.pref.okinawa.jp/ site/contents/attach/7005/pamphlet (Japan).pdf > (visited 3 January 2010).
58. See Stewart, supra note 48, pp. 418-428.
59. This is due to a variety of factors. Firstly, the self-identification issue is undoubtedly of crucial importance in attracting attention from the treaty bodies. But secondly and perhaps more importantly, Okinawa has been seen as an intrinsic part of the Japanese state, and Okinawans intrinsically 'Japanese', since at least 1972 and probably since 1945; this is in large part due to the attitude taken by the American occupying forces and the post-war Japanese government. For a more detailed overview of the recent history of Okinawan ethnicity and the role of the occupation in forming the state's attitudes towards Okinawans, see Taira, supra note 48.
60. Specifically Article 29, on the right to own property, and also Article 9(2), which prevents the government from maintaining 'war potential' and hence (supposedly) supporting the US bases.
61. L. Peng-Er, 'At the Margins of a Liberal-Democratic State: Ethnic Minorities in Japan', in W. Kymlicka and H. Baogang (eds.), Multiculturalism in Asia (Oxford University Press, 2005) p. 242.
62. C. Lim, 'Feeling a Distance from the "Motherland": The Identity of "Okinawans"', Okinawa Times , 1 January 2006, < www.bekkoame.ne.jp/i/a-001/anketo.html > (in Japanese) (visited 16 November 2009).
63. A notable example is the relocation of an American helicopter base to the town of Nago, which was vigorously opposed on the grounds of the damage it would cause to coral reefs in the area. See e.g. H. French, 'Nago Journal; US Copters? No, no, no. Not in their backyard', New York Times , 20 January 2000, < www.nytimes.com/2000/01/20/world/nago-journal-us-copters-no-no-no-notin- their-backyard.html?pagewanted=1 > (visited 3 January 2010).
64. Rape, among other violent crimes, is seven times more frequently committed by American military servicemen in Okinawa than the populace in general. See Stewart, supra note 48, fn. 267. 58) 4.9 per cent of the prefecture's gross expenditure in 1996 was related to the presence of the bases, according to the prefecture's own figures: < www.pref.okinawa.jp/summit/a- la/peace/beigun/ index2.htm > (visited 16 November 2009).
65. The problems cited correspond to Articles 29, 22, 30 and 21, respectively.
66. The definition question is extensively discussed in e.g. E. Daes, Note by the Chairperson- Rapporteur of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations: Criteria Which Might Be Applied When Considering the Concept of Indigenous Peoples (UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1995/3) and Kingsbury, supra note 47. The Okinawans likely fulfil three of the four of Daes' criteria, with selfidentification being the point at issue. The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights meanwhile stipulates "a special attachment to and use of [the group's] traditional land whereby their ancestral land and territory have a fundamental importance for their collective physical and cultural survival as peoples" ( Advisory Opinion of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights on the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples , 41st Ordinary Session of the of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (2007), para. 12); the Okinawans would also be unlikely to fulfil this admittedly amorphous criterion if it came to be seen as an international standard.
67. Regarding the issue of US bases in Japan, see e.g. P. Katzenstein and N. Okawara, Japan's National Security: Structures, Norms and Policy Responses in a Changing World (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1993)
68. and T. Maniruzzaman, Japan's Security Policy for the 21st Century (Dhaka University Press, Dhaka, 2000).
69. Peng-Er makes this claim in supra note 54, p. 230.
70. See e.g. Written Statement submitted by the Shimin Gaikou Centre to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (UN Doc. E/C.12/2001/NGO/3, 10 July 2001).
71. Concluding Observations on Japan's FifThPeriodic Report (UN Doc. CCPR/C/JPN/CO/5, 18 December 2008), Article 32.
72. Consideration of a Draft United Nations Resolution on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UN Doc. E/CN.4/WG.15/2) (1995).
73. Declaration of the Asian Delegation to the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations , reprinted in the IWGIA Newsletter , September/October 1991, para. 40.
74. See e.g. Kingsbury, supra note 47; M. Colchester, Forests and Indigenous Peoples of Asia , Minority Rights Group Report 98/4, 1998.
75. See Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People (UN Doc. A/HRC/6/15/Add.3), 1 November 2007, paras. 7 and 21.
76. See e.g. W. Kymlicka, 'Liberal Multiculturalism: Western Models, Global Trends, and Asian Debates', in Kymlicka and Baogang, supra note 54, pp. 48-49.
77. Concluding Observations on Laos' SixThto FifteenThPeriodic Reports , Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, (CERD/C/LAO/CO/15, 18 April 2005).
78. Report of the African Commission's Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/ Communities , 28ThOrdinary Session of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (2005), p. 92.
79. Ibid .
80. Ibid.. , p. 92.
81. Ibid ., p. 95.
82. Ibid ., p. 93.
83. ' Sagong bin Tasi v. Negeri Kerajaan Selangor ', 2 Malayan Law Journal 2002) p. 591.
84. The Sagong Tasi case and others are discussed in A. Sharom, 'A Critical Study of the Laws Relating to the Indigenous Peoples of Malaysia in the Context of Article 8(j) of the Biodiversity Convention', 13 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights (2006) pp. 53-68.
85. Report of the Special Rapporteur , supra note 68, para. 22.
86. Chichibu, supra note 27.
87. '2009 Change of Government: Ainu Association Chairperson expresses need to "Move ahead on policy"', Mainichi Shumbun (Hokkaido Edition), 10 September 2009, (in Japanese).