'Eight Views' versus 'Eight Scenes': The history of the Bajing tradition in China

Landscape Research

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 83-110

  Li, Kairan ^a   Woudstra, Jan ^a   Feng, Wei ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bajing; Chinese history; Eight scenes; Eight views; Scenic district

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL TRADITION; LANDSCAPE; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; OUTDOOR RECREATION; PERCEPTION;

CHINA;

EID: 77951585110     PISSN: 01426397     EISSN: 14699710     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01426390903414968     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Yi Ran chines source (1992) Xiao Xiang Eight Scenes in Japan chines source, Hunan Education Newspaper chines source, 9 May.
2. These are known as fangzhi (literally translated as 'gazette'), which refers to local records compiled by o.cials, or literati authorised by local governments. These, usually included volumes of 'Local Geography and Topography', 'Population and Custom', 'Special Local Product', 'Local Celebrities', 'Records of Big Events', 'Local Art and Culture', 'Local Temples and Shrines', 'Local Festivals', etc. For one speci.c town, there were various versions compiled at different times, for example, the Ming and Qing Version, discerned by the different dynasties. When there are more than one version from the same dynasty, they were discerned by different periods marked by the 'Emperor's Year Title (in Ming and Qing Dynasty, each Emperor only uses one Year Title)' such as Ming Wanli (chines source) version, or Ming Chenghua (chines source) version. The original copies of gazette literature are kept by local authorities of Cultural Bureau or Heritage Bureau, and National Archive Library or Provincial Ancient Books Library; some can be found in private collections and foreign libraries, such as Cambridge University Library. A small amount of them have been published in recent years. Some of them can partly be accessed online.
3. Tingyin Zhang (2004) The cultural signi.cance of Eight Scenes recorded in traditional clan records chines source, Academic Journal of Guangzhou University chines source, 3(4), pp. 40-45 (pp. 40-41).
4. There are 56 nations united in present-day China, of which Han was the dominant one. Chinese Han people now covers a similar area to that during the Song Dynasty.
5. Murck, A. (2000) Poetry and Painting in Song China: The Subtle Art of Dissent (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), p. 71.
6. Malenfer Ortiz, V. (1999) Dreaming the Southern Song Landscape: The Power of Illusion in Chinese Painting (Boston, MA: Brill), pp. 64-95.
7. Lach, D. F. (1998) Asia in the Making of Europe: A Century of Advance. Book 2, South Asia (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press), p. 314.
8. Zhaoming Qian (1995) Orientalism and Modernism: The Legacy of China (Durham, NH: Duke University Press).
9. Coburn Soper, A. (1951) Experiences in Painting: An Eleventh Century History of Chinese Painting (New York: American Council of Learned Societies).
10. Barnhart, R. (1991) pp. 223-246
11. cited in Malenfer Ortiz (1999) p. 93.
12. Munsterberg, H. (1955) The Landscape Painting of China and Japan (Rutland, VA: C.E. Tuttle) p. 7.
13. Guo Ruoxu noted an extant set of Eight Views paintings by Huang Quan; Li Cheng is attributed a series of paintings of Eight Views by Mi Fu.
14. Vinograd, R. (1982) Family properties: personal context and cultural pattern in Wang Meng's Pien Mountains of 1336, Ars Orientalis, 13, pp. 1-29 (p. 12).
15. During 1056-1063AD, the head o.cer of Qianzhou (The name of the city was been changed to Ganzhou after 1130AD and has been used till now) built a stone building with platform on the rampart, at the north-east corner of the city wall, after he repaired the rampart and the associated buildings. The platform was named 'Eight Scenes Platform' (the Chinese word used here was jing chines source other than jing chines source, which are synonyms in this context). The officer also painted 'Eight Scenes of Qianzhou' which unfortunately no longer survive.
16. Guoqiang Liu chines source (2003) About the cultural heritage of traditional Bajing in Hunan Province chines source, Chinese Local Gazette chines source, 2003(04).
17. Malenfer Ortiz (1999, p. 64).
18. Yoshiho Yonezawa, Chu Yoshizawa & Iverson Monroe, B. (1974) Japanese Painting in the Literati Style (New York: Weatherhill/Heibonsha). The book shows many Japanese examples of Eight Views painting, and recognises it as a classical Chinese genre.
19. Murck, A. (1995) The Meaning of the Eight Views of Hsiao-Hsiang: Poetry and Painting in Song China (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University), pp. 121-124.
20. Malenfer Ortiz (1999, p. 95).
21. Clunas, C. (1997) Pictures and Visuality in Early Modern China (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University), p. 36.
22. Zhao Xihu chines source, Dongtian Qingluji chines source, cited by Xingpei Yuan & Zhongyi Hou (1981) in: Zhongguo Wenyanxiaoshuo Shumu [Catalogue of Novels in Classical Chinese] (Beijing: Beijing University), p. 181.
23. Malenfer Ortiz (1999, p. 98).
24. Strassberg, R. E. (1994) Inscribed Landscapes: Travel Writing from Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press), p. 33.
25. New Tang History, vol. 128, entry 23.
26. Whole Collection of the Tang Poetry, vol. 479, entry 8.
27. The earliest example of this is from the Tang Dynasty, composed by Wang Wei, recorded in Guo Ruoxu chines source (11th century) (1963) Tuhua Jianwenzhi [Notes and Stories about Paintings in 841-1074] chines source (Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe chines source) Vol. 4.
28. Committee of Chinese Language Dictionary (1994) Entry of 'chines source', in: Grand Dictionary of Chinese Language chines source (Beijing: Publishing Company of Grand Dictionary of Chinese Language).
29. Guo Ruoxu chines source (11th century) (1963) Tuhua Jianwenzhi [Notes and Stories about Paintings in 841-1074] chines source (Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe chines source, 1963) Vol. 4, entry of Wang Wei chines source available at http://guji.artx.cn/Article/20171_20177.html (accessed 3 June 2008).
30. The poetry recorded in Wangchuanji chines source (literally means 'series of poems for the place Wangchuan'). Two poets each composed 20 poems for the 20 scenic locations. Some of the poems vividly described a landscape scene, providing a mental picture of the physical landscape which are valuable in tracing the original landscape, while most poems only address the metaphorical image or philosophical thinking inspired by the scene. Source from Ouyang Xiu (Ed.) (1986) Liezhuan [Biographies] chines source 127 chines source, in: Xintagnshu [New Tang Dynasty History] chines source (Taibei: Shangwu Yinshuguan), available at: http://www.sinology.cn/book/3/02-lib/01-zg/03-guoxue/chines_source/25_chines_source/215.htm (accessed 3 June 2008).
31. Tao Gu chines source (10th century) (1985) 'Zhuanxiumen' [About dish and cookery] chines source, in: Qingyilu [Random Notes of Qingyilu] chines source (Beijing: Chinese Business Press), available at: http://www6.xiaoshuo.com/readbook/0011023282_5048_1.html (accessed 3 June 2008).
32. Su Shi, also know as Su Dongpo, a famous poet, artist and literati, who was a high ranking o.cer in Song Dynasty government.
33. Bush, S. (1971) The Chinese Literati on Painting; Su Shih (1037-1101) to Tung Chichang (1555-1636) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).
34. also see Shaohua Wang chines source (2001) Poetry and painting theory by Su Shi chines source "chines source-chines source" chines source, Wenyi Lilun Yanjiu [Research on Literature and Art Theory] chines source, 1, pp. 77-83 (pp. 77-78).
35. Zibo Committee of Shandong General Press chines source (1985) Zibo Fengwuzhi [Local History of Zibo] chines source (Jinan: Shandong Renmin Chubanshe chines source), p. 41.
36. Scenes recorded in Quanjiao local o.cial Gazette literature chines source 1920 chines source, information gained from the Quanjiao Government website, available at http://www.quanjiao.gov.cn.
37. The mountain's name Qiyun literally means 'the same height as clouds', which gives a vivid hint of the view from the mountain top.
38. Swaffield, S. R. (2002) Theory in Landscape Architecture: A Reader (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), p. 149.
39. According to Daoist theory, there are eight phases step by step before becoming immortal, known as Eight Dao: ru Dao, xue Dao, fang Dao, xiu Dao, de Dao, chuan Dao, liao Dao, cheng Dao.
40. Chunsheng He chines source (2007) Idioms influenced by Daoism chines source, Maoshan Daoyuan chines source, 22 February.
41. As recorded in Taoist cannon Shangqing Jinzhenyuguang Bajing Feijing chines source compiled in third-fourth century,.rst published in 1554, repr. Shanghai: Hanfenlou chines source (1926) as part of Zhengtong Daocang chines source vol. 1042: the spirits are Yuan-jing, Shi-jing, Xuan-jing, Xujing, Zhen-jing, Ming-jing, Dong-jing, Qing-jing; respectively the dates connected with each are Beginning of Spring, Spring Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumn Equinox, Beginning of Winter, Winter Solstice; it is said that the spirit got Tao on that date.
42. Wei Huacun chines source (?265-?317), Huangtingjing chines source (1996) (ed.) by Zong Du and Chaozhong Zhang chines source, chines source (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui kexue Chubanshe chines source), pp. 1-3.
43. For example, Dong Gao chines source (19th century) (1819) Tiantan Wangwushan Shengjiji [The Appearance of Shenxian in Mt. Wangwu of Tiantan] chines source, in: Quantangwen [Whole Collection of Prose of the Tang Dynasty] chines source, (Yangzhou: Guanben chines source, 1819 chines source; repr. Beijing: Zhonghuashuju chines source (1985) online resource of Chinese historic material database, available at http://guji.artx.cn/Article/9863_10805.html (accessed 10 June 2008).
44. The term Bajing is frequently used together with God Taishanglaojun in various Taoist cannons such as Shangqingjing chines source, Laojundaojing chines source, etc. shown in 'Table of contents' of Zhonghuadaocang [Collection of Chinese Taoist Cannon] chines source, ed. by Chinese Taoist Association chines source (2004) (Beijing: Huaxia Chubanshe); the Ba-Jing Palace as his residence is frequently mentioned in the novel Fengshenbang chaines source in late sixteenth century, and other novels and folk stories since.
45. For example, the local records Jiangxitongzhi [History of Jiangxi] in the early eighteenth century and late nineteenth century about relics of a temple which has been prosperous in seventh to.fteenth centuries, mention the Bajing Altar foundation as the only main remains. 111: 'chines source','chines source' 122:
46. It was used in Huangtingjing chines source, a book written by a female Taoist Wei Huacun chines source (?265-?317) in the third century. Source from Huangtingjing chines source, annotated by Zong Du and Chaozhong Zhang chines source, (1996) (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui kexue Chubanshe chines source), pp. 1-3.
47. Yi (The Book of Change), also known as Yijing chines source or Zhouyi chines source, which was written at least 3000 years ago. The 'Eight Diagrams' chines source was taken as the symbol of the universe; everything can be symbolised in these diagrams or group of diagrams. 'Xici' chines source (chines source), in: Zhouyi [The Book of Change] chines source, in Jingbu Yilei of Wenyuange Siku Quanshu chines source, ed. by Jiyun (1986) (Taibei: Shangwu Yinshuguan), available at http://guji.artx.cn/Article/695_699.html# (accessed 27 April 2008).
48. A large number of idioms in Chinese indicate this, such as 'four sides and eight directions' chines source refers to 'all the directions around'; 'be good in eight facets' chines source means 'be perfect in every aspect'; 'eight musical instruments' chines source is used as the general name for all kinds of musical instruments; 'the relationship of eight obeisance' chines source means 'sworn brothers (sisters)' or very intimate friendship. There are many more other examples in ancient Chinese language which are hard to explain in modern words, such as: chines source, etc.
49. Jin Xu chines source, (1986) Jiangxi Mingsheng Shixuan [Poems about Famous Scenic Resorts in Jiangxi] chines source (Nanchang: Jiangxi Renmin Chubanshe chines source), p. 186.
50. Su Shi (1037-1101) (1982) Su Shi Corpus chines source (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Bureau chines source), vol. 16, p. 791.
51. Weiquan Zhou chines source (1990) Zhongguo Gudian Yuanlinshi [Chinese Classic Garden History] chines source (Beijing: Qinghua University), p. 138.
52. Li Gefei chines source (1045-1106) Luoyang Mingyuan Ji [Famous Gardens in Luoyang] chines source, in: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu Shibu Dililei chines source, ed. by Jiyun (1986) (Taibei: Shangwu Yinshuguan), available at http://www.guoxue123.com/shibu/0301/0000/018.htm (accessed 10 June 2008).
53. Xie Lingyun (accessed 10 June 2008) (385-433) Ni Weitaizi Yezhongjishi Xu [Foreword of the Yezhong Group Poems Written by Wei Prince] (accessed 10 June 2008), online resource of Chinese historic material database, available at http://www.ziyexing.com/.les-2/xielingyun/xielingyun_02.htm (accessed 10 June 2008).
54. As in the period of 1522-1620AD chines source, chines source and 1736-1795AD chines source. This does not de.nitively prove that this period is the heyday of Eight Scenes, since the Ming and Qing Dynasty is also a period with the prosperity of local gazette literature, when more than 7000 literature date from then in the altogether 8200 existing local gazette literature (chines source).
55. Yingjie Li chines source (1998) Fenzhou cangsang [History of Fenzhou] chines source, ed. by Kairen Wang and Ruixiang Liu chines source (Taiyuan: Beiyue wenyi chubanshe chines source), p. 428.
56. Zhang Yingzhao chines source (Ming Dynasty, n. d.), Xianyangxian Xinzhi [New Records of Xianyang County] chines source (n.pub.: 1591 chines source 19 chines source).
57. Also in Xianyangxian Zhi chines source version of 'K29-51 4 chines source 170.57' chines source (n.pub.: 1751 chines source 16; repr. Taibei: Xuesheng Shuju chines source, 1967 chines source).
58. Various examples of detailed accounts have been identi.ed, which will be the subject of a future paper on 'The enhancement of scenic places for public leisure by scholar officers, as influenced by Confucian thoughts in pre-modern China', which includes cases such as 'a local magistrate donated salary and called for volunteering works for the enhancement of a hill nearby the town for public leisure', source from 'Dongfengtingji' [Prose for the Kiosk on Eastern Hill] chines source, by Feng Su (Tang Dynasty chines source) chines source, in: Zhongguo Youji Sanwen Daxi Zhejiang Juan, ed. by Chengde Zhang, and others chines source (2002) (Taiyuan: Shuhai Chubanshe chines source), pp. 811-813
59. case such as 'a Taoist monk being designated by a local head officer to take care of the scenery in Mt. Weiyu, who managed to attract more visitors and enhance the place as both a popular scenic resort and a famous monastery site', source from 'Weiyushanguan ji' [Notes of the Monastery of Mt. Weiyu] chines source, by Xie Ji chines source (Song Dynasty chines source), in the royal designated collection of ancient and present books, Shanchuandian [Collection of Mountains and Waters], vol. 120, Mt. Weiyu, yiwen [Art and Literature], 1; etc.
60. Liu Jia chines source (8th century) (1992) Shangsiri [Day of Shangsi Festival] chines source, in: Tangshi Fenlei Dacidian [Encyclopaedia of Poetry in Tang Dynasty in Categories] chines source, ed. by Dongtian Ma chines source (Chengdu: Sichuan Cishu Chubanshe chines source), p. 364.
61. Liu Tong chines source, Yu Yizheng chines source (Ming Dynasty), Dijing Jingwu Lue-Chunchang [Scenery in the Capital Place of Spring] chines source (Jinling chines source: Hongdaotang chines source, 1639 chines source; repr. (2001) Shanghai: Gujichubanshe).
62. In recent several years, thanks to the popular use of the Internet, most local governments built up their websites with information of local history and culture. Eight Scenes as part of local history are sometimes published on the websites, and in many cases, with the contribution of anonymous local historical researchers, giving detailed descriptions of the site, the related legends, and the present condition of the scene (most were destroyed or covered by urban sprawl). Around 200 sets of Eight Scenes have been collected as part of this research, with 100 subjected to the analysis.
63. For example, a famous historian like Dai Zhen chines source (1723-1777) has advocated not to record Eight Scenes in Fangzhi (Gazette) since he reckoned such records were not accurate or objective, and were usually exaggerated (in the preface of the Qianlong era Fenzhou Prefectural Gazette, edited by him ); and literati like Lu Xun chines source (1881-1936) have criticised this tradition as a disease that every country has got (in his prose 'My Further Argument on the Collapse of Leifeng Tower' ).
64. Zhihao Wang chines source (n.d.) Where are the traditional Eight Scenes of Quanjiao today? chines source?, source from Quanjiao Government website available at http://www.quanjiao.-gov.cn/v2/include/article_view.php?tid1/466&ty1/47 (accessed 7 December 2007).
65. Ye Shi chines source (Song Dynasty) (2002) Huzhou Shengshanglou Ji chines source, in: Zhongguo Youji Sanwen Daxi Zhejiang Juan, ed. by Chengde Zhang and others chines source (Taiyuan: Shuhai Chubanshe chines source), pp. 954-955.
66. Bai Juyi chines source (772-846) Baipingzhou Wuting Ji chines source, in: Zhongguo Youji Sanwen Daxi Zhejiang Juan, ed. by Zhang Chengde and others chines source (2002) (Taiyuan: Shuhai Chubanshe chines source), pp. 943-945.
67. Written as mingshan dachuan chines source, is literally interpreted as 'national natural scenery resources' in modern terms.
68. Ministry of Construction of P.R. China (1985) Scenic District Provisional Ordinance (Beijing: State Council of P.R. China).
69. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of P.R. China (2007) The Report on General Achievement of Scenic District for 25th anniversary, available at http://www.cin.gov.cn/hybd/07hybd/fjms25cjz/zhxx/200709/t20070903_122186.htm (accessed 2 June 2008).
70. Weizheng Wang chines source (2000) National Park (Beijing: Chinese Forestry Press), p. 3.