From slaves to citizens? Tannenbaum and the debates on slavery, emancipation, and race relations in Latin America

International Labor and Working-Class History

Volumn 77, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 154-173

  De La Fuente, Alejandro ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77951568813     PISSN: 01475479     EISSN: 14716445     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0147547909990305     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (118)

1. Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen (Boston, 1992), 4, 107, 112.
2. For a few recent examples, see Robert J. Cottrol, "The Long Lingering Shadow: Law, Liberalism, and Cultures of Racial Hierarchy and Identity in the Americas," Tulane Law Review 76 (2001): 40;
3. Frederick Cooper, Thomas C. Holt, and Rebecca J. Scott, Beyond Slavery: Explorations of Race, Labor, and Citizenship in Postemancipation Societies (Chapel Hill, 2000), 1-32;
4. Jane Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida (Urbana, 1999), 1-2;
5. Thomas N. Ingersoll, Mammon and Manon in Early New Orleans: The First Slave Society in the Deep South, 1718 - 1819 (Knoxville, 1999), xviii-xix, 120-122;
6. Gilbert C. Din, Spaniards, Planters, and Slaves: The Spanish Regulation of Slavery in Louisiana, 1763 - 1803 (College Station, MD, 1999), xiii-xiv.
7. Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, xv.
8. On the controversy sparked by Williams's book, see Walter Minchinton, "Williams and Drescher: Abolition and Emancipation," Slavery and Abolition 4 (1983): 81-105;
9. Seymour Drescher, "The Decline Thesis of British Slavery since Econocide," Slavery and Abolition 7 (1986), 3-23;
10. Barbara L. Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams (New York, 1987)
11. Drescher, "Capitalism and Slavery After Fifty Years," Slavery and Abolition 18 (1997), 12-27;
12. Selwyn H.H. Carrington, The Sugar Industry and the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1775 - 1810 (Gainesville, FL, 2002).
13. Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 4, 42.
14. Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 4, Ibid., 63, 66.
15. Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 4, Ibid., 97, 105.
16. Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 4, Ibid., 95, 112.
17. On the impact of the Second World War on the politics of race in the United States, see Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, 2000);
18. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA, 2001).
19. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1996), 113, 134.
20. Melville Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (Boston, 1990);
21. Kevin Yelvington, "The Invention of Africa in Latin America and the Caribbean: Political Discourse and Anthropological Praxis, 1920-1940," in Afro-Atlantic Dialogues: Anthropology in the Diaspora, ed. K. Yelvington (Santa Fe, 2006), 53-76.
22. Otto Klineberg, ed., Characteristics of the American Negro (New York, 1944).
23. Donald Pierson, Negroes in Brazil (Chicago, 1942), 156, 325.
24. The book was published in English as Mansions and the Shanties: The Making of Modern Brazil (New York, 1963) with an introduction by Tannenbaum.
25. W.E.B. DuBois, The Negro (New York, 1915), 98.
26. See also David J. Hellwig, ed., African-American Reflections on Brazil's Racial Paradise (Philadelphia, 1992).
27. Cited in Frank A. Guridy, "From Solidarity to Cross-Fertilization: Afro-Cuban/African American Interaction During the 1930s and 1940s," Radical History 87 (2003): 24.
28. See also Lisa Brock and Digna Castañ eda Fuertes, eds., Between Race and Empire: African-Americans and Cubans Before the Cuban Revolution (Philadelphia, 1998).
29. Alfred Métraux, "An Inquiry into Race Relations in Brazil," UNESCO Courier (1952): 6.
30. On the UNESCO studies, see Marcos Chor Maio, "UNESCO and the Study of Race Relations in Brazil: Regional or National Issue?" Latin American Research Review 36 (2001): 118-136;
31. Peter Wade, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (London, 1997), 51-57.
32. Roger Bastide, "São Paulo, the Octopus Town," UNESCO Courier (1952): 9.
33. L.A. Costa Pinto, "Rio de Janeiro, Melting Pot of Peoples," UNESCO Courier (1952): 10.
34. Charles Wagley, "Attitudes in the 'Backlands,'" UNESCO Courier (1952): 12-13.
35. Bastide, "São Paulo," 9;
36. Costa Pinto, Rio de Janeiro, 10
37. Wagley, Attitudes,12
38. Thales de Azevedo, "Bahia, the Negro Metropolis," UNESCO Courier (1952): 14-15;
39. Métraux, An Inquiry, 6.
40. Marvin Harris, "Race and Class in Minas Velhas, a Community in the Mountain Region of Central Brazil," in Race and Class in Rural Brazil, ed. Charles Wagley (Paris, 1952), 47-81.
41. Florestan Fernandes, The Negro in Brazilian Society (New York, 1971).
42. especially the "Preface to the U.S. Edition" Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 103.
43. Carlos Hasenbalg, "Race and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Brazil," in Race, Class and Power in Brazil, ed. Pierre-Michel Fontaine (Los Angeles, 1985), 25-41;
44. Hasenbalg, Discriminação e desigualdades raciaias no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1979);
45. Nelson do Valle Silva, "Updating the Cost of Not Being White in Brazil," in Race, Class and Power in Brazil, ed. Pierre-Michel Fontaine (Los Angeles, 1985), 42-55.
46. George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil 1888-1988 (Madison, 1991).
47. The reference to white supremacy is taken from France W. Twine, Racism in a Racial Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1998), 135.
48. The most accomplished scholarly articulation of this position for Brazil is Michael G. Hanchard, Orpheus and Power: The Movimento Negro of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, Brazil, 1945-1988 (Princeton, 1994).
49. For another important contribution see Aline Helg, Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995).
50. Costa Pinto, "Rio de Janeiro"
51. Harry W. Hutchinson, "Shades of Colour and Meaning," UNESCO Courier (1952): 11.
52. Carl Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (Madison, 1971), 268;
53. Thomas E. Skidmore, "Bi-racial U.S.A. vs. Multi-racial Brazil: Is the Contrast Still Valid," Journal of Latin American Studies 25 (1993): 373-386;
54. George Reid Andrews, "Racial Inequality in Brazil and the United States: A Statistical Comparison," Journal of Social History 26 (1992), 229-263.
55. The best-known scholarship following the Tannenbaum position was Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago, 1959)
56. and Herbert Klein, Slavery in the Americas: A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba (Chicago, 1967).
57. Degler, Neither Black nor White, 92.
58. I analyze this debate elsewhere, "Slave Law and Claims-Making: The Tannenbaum Debate Revisited," Law and History Review 22 (2004): 339-369, and offer here only a brief summary.
59. Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (New York, 1964), 76;
60. Ingersoll, Mammon and Manon, xviii.
61. For a recent survey of the contentious process of emancipation, see George Reid Andrews, Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000 (New York, 2004), 53-84.
62. Manuel Moreno Fraginals, El ingenio: complejo económico-social cubano del azúcar (Havana, 1978), 2:7-14.
63. Cottrol, "The Long Lingering Shadow" Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida.
64. Ann Twinam, Public Lives, Private Secrets: Gender, Honor, Sexuality, and Illegitimacy in Colonial Spanish America (Stanford, 1999), 25;
65. John H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492 - 1830 (New Haven, 2006), 410.
66. David C. Rankin, "The Tannenbaum Thesis Reconsidered: Slavery and Race Relations in Antebellum Louisiana," Southern Studies 18 (1979): 5-31;
67. Ingersoll, Mammon and Manon, 211-239;
68. Thomas M. Fiehrer, "The African Presence in Colonial Louisiana: An Essay on the Continuity of Caribbean Culture," in Louisiana's Black Heritage, ed. Robert R. Macdonald et al. (New Orleans, 1979), 3-31.
69. Din, Spaniards, Planters, and Slaves, 44.
70. Judith K. Schafer, Slavery, the Civil Law, and the Supreme Court of Louisiana (Baton Rouge, 1994), 6.
71. Livio Sansone, Blackness without Ethnicity: Constructing Race in Brazil (New York, 2003), 12;
72. Edward E. Tellez, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil (Princeton, 2004), 2.
73. Hanchard, Orpheus and Power, 5;
74. Twine, Racism, 4;
75. Aline Helg, Liberty and Equality in Caribbean Colombia, 1770 - 1835 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004), 6.
76. For examples of this scholarship on Brazil, see Sansone, Blackness Without Ethnicity;
77. Robin E. Sheriff, Dreaming Equality: Color, Race, and Racism in Urban Brazil (New Brunswick, NJ, 2001);
78. Rita L. Segato, "The Color-Blind Subject of Myth; Or, Where to Find Africa in the Nation," Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998): 129-151; (Pubitemid 128460197)
79. Stanley R. Bailey, "The Race Construct and Public Opinion: Understanding Brazilian Beliefs about Racial Inequality and their Determinants," American Journal of Sociology 108 (2002): 406-439.
80. Peter Fry, A Persistência da raça: Ensaios antropológicos sobre o Brasil e a Africa austral (Rio de Janeiro, 2005).
81. For other Latin American scenarios, see my A Nation for All: Race, Inequality and Politics in Twentieth-Century Cuba (Chapel Hill, NC, 2001);
82. Marixa Lasso, Myths of Harmony: Race and Republicanism during the Age of Revolution, Colombia 1795-1831 (Pittsburgh, 2007)
83. and John Charles Chasteen, National Rhythms, African Roots: The Deep History of Latin American Popular Dances (Albuquerque, NM, 2004).
84. Degler, Neither White nor Black, 92.
85. H. Hoetink, Slavery and Race Relations in the Americas: Comparative Notes on their Nature and Nexus (New York, 1973), 40.
86. I learned about these studies through Verena Stolcke's excellent overview, "The Slavery Period and Its Influence on Household Structure and the Family in Jamaica, Cuba, and Brazil," in Family Systems and Cultural Change, ed. Elza Berquó and Peter Xenos (Oxford, 1992), 125-143;
87. Herbert Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750 - 1925 (New York, 1976);
88. B.W. Higman, "The Slave Family and Household in the British West Indies, 1780-1834," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 6 (1975): 261-287.
89. Emilia Viotti da Costa, "Commentary," Luso-Brazilian Review (1992), 147.
90. John W. Cell, The Highest State of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (Cambridge, 1982), xii;
91. Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil (New York, 1998), 8-9.
92. Leví Marrero, Cuba: Economía y sociedad (Madrid, 1992), 15: 232-34;
93. Rebecca J. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860-1899 (Princeton, 1985), 39-41;
94. Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, Empire and Antislavery: Spain, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, 1833-1874 (Pittsburgh, 1999), 102-108, 129-135;
95. Raúl Cepero Bonilla, Azúcar y abolición (Barcelona, 1976), 68-85;
96. Arthur Corwin, Spain and the Abolition of Slavery in Cuba, 1817-1886 (Austin, 1967), 189-214.
97. Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), 15-42;
98. Scott, Slave Emancipation, 45-62;
99. Jorge Ibarra, Ideología mambisa (Havana, 1967), 42-58.
100. Marrero, Cuba, 15: 306-11;
101. Scott, Slave Emancipation, 45-62;
102. Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 27-28.
103. Louis A. Pérez, Cuba Between Empires, 1878-1902 (Pittsburgh, 1983), 310.
104. Scott, Slave Emancipation, 63-83, 127-171;
105. Camillia Cowling, "Negotiating Freedom: Women of Colour, Gender and the Transition from Slavery to Free Labour in Cuba, 1870- 1886," Slavery and Abolition 26 (2005): 377-391.
106. Corwin, Spain, 255-272;
107. Scott, Slave Emancipation, 73-74.
108. Helg, Our Rightful Share, 36-38;
109. Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 128-137.
110. Julio Carreras, Historia del estado y el derecho en Cuba (Havana, 1981), 191.
111. There is a growing scholarship on the postwar political reforms, the Partido Liberal Autonomista, and the Autonomist regime in the island. Most of this scholarship has been produced by Spanish scholars such as Luis Miguel García Mora, "Tras la revolución, las reformas: el Partido Liberal Cubano y los proyectos reformistas tras la Paz del Zanjón," in Cuba, la perla de las Antillas, ed. Consuelo Naranjo Orovio and Tomas Mallo (Aranjuez, 1994), 197-212;
112. García Mora, "La fuerza de la palabra: el autonomismo en Cuba en el último tercio del siglo XIX," Revista de Indias 61 (2001), 715-748;
113. Mariano E. de Vega and José Cayuela Fernández, "Elite hispano-cubana, autonomismo y desastre del '98," Colonial Latin American Review 9 (2000), 81-112;
114. Inés Roldán de Montaud, La Restauración en Cuba y el fracaso del proyecto reformista (Madrid, 2000).
115. Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 199-200;
116. De la Fuente, A Nation for All, 56-60;
117. Pérez, Cuba Between Empires, 303-314.
118. Rebecca J. Scott, Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba After Slavery (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 264.