Participatory Democracy, Science and Technology: An Exploration in the Philosophy of Science

Participatory Democracy, Science and Technology: An Exploration in the Philosophy of Science

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-252

  Rogers, Karl ^a  

^a LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77951268359     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1057/9780230594142     Document Type: Book

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60. In Thucydides' The History of the Peloponnesian War (Hobbes, trans., Chicago University Press, 1989).
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68. Aronowitz, S., et al. (eds), Technoscience and Cyberculture (London: Routledge, 1996).
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71. Bimber, B., "Three Faces of Technological Determinism", Smith, M.R., and Marx, L. (eds), Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1994), pp. 80-100.
72. Mitcham, C., Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy (University of Chicago Press, 1994).
73. Dewey, J., The Quest for Certainty (New York: Capricorn, 1960), pp. 6-7.
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77. Popper, K., The Poverty of Historicism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957).
78. Wright, S., Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (University of Chicago Press, 1994).
79. Goggin, M. (ed.), Governing Science and Technology in a Democracy (Knoxville, TN.: University of Tennessee Press, 1986).
80. Petersen, J. (ed.), Citizen Participation in Science Policy (Amherst, Mass: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984).
81. Dickson, D., The New Politics of Science (University of Chicago Press, 1988).
82. In Ode To Man in Antigone (New York: Dover Publications, 1993).
83. Mitcham, C., Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy (University of Chicago Press, 1994).
84. Weber, M., The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Parsons, trans., New York: Scribners, 1958)
85. Economy and Society (2 vols., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978).
86. Weber, M., "Science as a Vocation" (in Gerth and Mills (ed.), From Max Weber, New York: Oxford University Press, 1972).
87. Ellul, J., The Political Illusions (New York: Knopf, 1968).
88. Winner, Autonomous Technology, p. 229.
89. Manheim, K., Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1951), p. 55.
90. see Bookchin, M., Post-scarcity Anarchism (New York: Black Rose, 1971);
91. The Philosophy of Social Ecology: Essays on Dialectical Naturalism (New York: Black Rose, 1996)
92. The Ecology of Freedom (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2005).
93. Biehl, J., The Politics of Social Ecology:Libertarian Municipalism (New York: Black Rose, 1998).
94. Roy Bhaskar in Science and Human Emancipation (London: Verso, 1986)
95. The Possibility of Naturalism (London: Verso, 1989)
96. Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom (London: Verso, 1993).
97. Capital (Vol. 1, p. 352, note 2).
98. see Capital, I., pp. 533-4
99. MSCN, Chapter 3
100. 1859 Preface to Critique of Political Economy.
101. See Blackledge, P. and Kirkpatrick, G., Historical Materialism and Social Evolution (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002)
102. Arendt, H., The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian Books, 1958).
103. See also Alexander Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago: An Experiment in Literary Investigation (Whitney, trans., London: Harper & Row, 1973, published in the Soviet Union in 1989).
104. see Gouldner, A.W., The Two Marxisms (New York: Seabury, 1982).
105. see MSCN, pp. 80-93.
106. See Shanin, T., Late Marx and the Russian Road: Marx and the 'Peripheries of Capitalism' (London, 1983).
107. A similar theory was proposed by the nineteenth century social libertarian Alexander Herzen in From the Other Shore and The Russian People and Socialism (Budberg, trans., London, 1956).
108. see Zaleski, E., et al., Science Policy in the USSR (Pairs: OECD Publications, 1969);
109. Joravsky, D., The Lysenko Affair (University of Chicago Press, 1970);
110. Bailes, K., Technology and Society Under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton University Press, 1978);
111. Graham, L.R., What Have We Learned About Science and Technology from the Russian Experience? (Stanford University Press, 1988);
112. Gorokhov, V., "Politics, Progress, and Engineering: Technical Professionals in Russia" in Winner, L. (ed.), Democracy in a Technological Society (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992), pp. 175-86;
113. Roll-Hansen, N., The Lysenko Effect: The Politics of Science (New York: Humanity Books, 2005).
114. As pointed out at the time by Rosa Luxemburg in The Russian Revolution (London: Paul Levi, 1922, written 1918)
115. Rhys Williams, A., Through the Russian Revolution (New York: Bons and Liveright, 1921)
116. Emma Goldman in My Disillusionment in Russia (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1923).
117. Even John Reed who at the time of writing Ten Days that Shook the World (Penguin Books, 1966, first published in 1919)
118. Louise Bryant observed, in Six Red Months in Russia (London: Heinemann, 1919)
119. David Mandel, in The Petrograd Workers and the Soviet Seizure of Power (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1984)
120. Carr, E.H., The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1923, Volume 1 (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966);
121. Althusser, L., Lenin and Philosophy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971);
122. Lewin, M., Lenin's Last Struggle (London: Pluto Press, 1975);
123. Liebman, M., Leninism under Lenin (London: Jonathon Cape, 1975);
124. Bellis, P., Marxism and the USSR: The Theory of Proletarian Dictatorship and the Marxist Analysis of Soviet Society (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979);
125. Fitzpatrick, S., The Russian Revolution (Oxford University Press, 1994);
126. Gooding, J., Socialism in Russia: Lenin and his Legacy, 1890-1991 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002)
127. See also Marcuse, H., Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958).
128. see Kellner, D., Herbert Marcuse and the Crisis of Marxism (London: Macmillan, 1984).
129. see Davis, R.W. The Socialist Offensive: The Collectivisation of Soviet Agriculture 1929-1930 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1980).
130. Lewin, M., Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers (London: Free Press, 1975)
131. Sutela, P., Economic Thought and Economic Reform in the Soviet Union (Cambridge University Press, 1991).
132. Heilbroner, R.L., "Do Machines Make History?" first published in Technology and Culture, July 1967, pp. 335-45;
133. reproduced in Smith, M.R., and Marx, L.(eds), Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1994), pp. 53-65.
134. Bimber, B., "Three Faces of Technological Determinism", Smith and Marx (eds), Does Technology Drive History? pp. 80-100.
135. Reprinted in Rousseau, J-J., The Basic Political Writings (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987), pp. 1-24.
136. Husserl, E., The Crisis of European Sciences (Carr, trans., Northwestern University Press, 1970), first published in 1910.
137. Heidegger, M., Being and Time (Macquarie and Robinson, trans., New York: Harper & Row, 1962).
138. For detailed discussion of Heidegger's criticisms of Galilean physics see MEP, Chapters 2 and 3.
139. Heidegger, M., "The Question Concerning Technology" (first published in 1955) in The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays (Lovitt, trans., Harper Torchbooks, 1977)
140. Basic Writings (Farrell Krell, ed., London: Routledge, 1978, pp. 311-41).
141. "Letter On Humanism" (first published 1946) in Basic Writings (pp. 217-65), p. 255.
142. QCT, p. 15.
143. QCT, p. 25.
144. QCT, p. 32.
145. QCT, pp. 14 and 21-3.
146. see MEP, Chapters 3 and 4.
147. "Letter on Humanism", p. 259, footnote;
148. see MEP for further discussion.
149. Marcuse, H., Reason and Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1960), first published in 1941;
150. Eros and Civilization (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966), first published in 1955.
151. Marcuse, H., One-Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press, 1991), first published in 1964.
152. see Soviet Marxism (New York: Columbia University, 1958)
153. See MSCN, pp. 93-104 for critical discussion.
154. See Marcuse, H., Counter-Revolution and Revolt (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972)
155. The Aesthetic Dimension (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978).
156. Ellul, J., The Technological Society (Wilkinson, trans., New York: Knopf, 1964).
157. see MSCN, Chapter 3.
158. Technological Society, pp. 38-45.
159. see MEP, Chapters 1 and 6.
160. see MEP, Chapter 4.
161. TS, p. 86.
162. ibid, p. xxxiii.
163. The Politics of God and the Politics of Man (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1972)
164. The Ethics of Freedom (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1976).
165. See also Hanks, J.M., Jacques Ellul: A Comprehensive Bibliography (Greenwich, Con: JAI Press, 1984)
166. Lovekin, D., Technique, Discourse, and Consciousness: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Jacque Ellul (Bethlehem, Pa: Lehigh University Press, 1991).
167. TS, p. 184.
168. See Ellul, J., The Technological Bluff (Bomiley, trans., Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1990)
169. see also MSCN, pp. 74-93.
170. The Revolt of the Masses (New York: Norton, 1993), first published in 1930.
171. Borgmann, A., Technology and the Character of Contemporary Life: A Philosophical Inquiry (University of Chicago Press, 1984)
172. see Higgs, E., Light, A., and Strong, D. (eds), Technology and the Good Life? (University of Chicago Press, 2000), including Borgmann's "Reply To My Critics", pp. 341-70.
173. Technology and the Character of Contemporary Life, p. 3.
174. Mitcham, C., "On Character and Technology" in Higgs, et al. (ed.), Technology and the Good Life? pp. 126-48.
175. Op cit, p. 197.
176. Op cit, p. 219.
177. See also Borgmann, A., "Communities of Celebration: Technology and Public Life" (in Ferré, ed., Research in Philosophy and Technology, vol. 10, Greenwich: JAI Press, 1990, pp. 315-45).
178. Op cit, p. 208.
179. Op cit, pp. 223-31.
180. Op cit, pp. 9-11.
181. see Strong, D. and Higgs, E., "Borgmann's Philosophy of Technology" in Higgs, TGL?, pp. 19-37.
182. Op cit, pp. 35-48.
183. Op cit, p. 53.
184. Op cit, p. 105.
185. Op cit, p. 198.
186. MSCN, pp. 154-6.
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193. Bijker, W. and Law, J. (eds), Shaping Technology, Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1992)
194. Marx, L., The Machine in the Garden (Oxford University Press, 1964)
195. Hughes, T.P., Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1983)
196. Callon, M., Law, J. and Rip, A. (eds), Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World (London: Macmillan, 1986)
197. Law, J. (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London: Routledge, 1991)
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199. Hughes, T.P., Human Built World: How to Think about Technology and Culture (University of Chicago, 2004)
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201. Jacobsen, J.K., The Manufacture of Knowledge (Pergamon, 1981).
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203. Ihde, D., Technology and the Lifeworld (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990), Questioning Technology, pp. 207-10
204. Hans Jonas' Philosophical Essays: From Ancient Creed to Technological Man (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974)
205. Hans Jonas, The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age (Chicago University Press, 1984).
206. Parallels with Michel Foucault's analysis in Knowledge/Power: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (Gordon, trans., ed., New York: Pantheon Books, 1980)
207. Rappaport, D., "Have Intellectuals a Class Interest?"
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209. John Jacobsen put it in Technical Fouls, p. 4,
210. Noble, D., Forces of Production (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 164.
211. Noble, D., Forces of Production (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), Questioning Technology, p. 80
212. Noble, D., Forces of Production (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 78-81, 88-9.
213. Noble, D., Forces of Production (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 95.
214. Noble, D., Forces of Production (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), Transforming Technology, part III.
215. Noble, D., Forces of Production (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 174-5.
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217. Noble, D., "Technological Momentum" in Smith and Marx, eds, pp. 102-13.
218. Noble, D., "Technological Momentum" in Smith and Marx, eds, TT, pp. 153-61.
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220. Latour, B., "Where are the Missing Masses? The Sociology of a Few Mundane Artifacts" in Bijker and Law (eds), Shaping Technology, Building Society.
221. Gorz, A., Ecology As Politics (Boston: South End Press, 1982), Questioning Technology, p.131.
222. Gorz, A., Borgmann discussed this point in detail in Crossing the Postmodern Divide (University of Chicago Press, 1992).
223. Gorz, A., Ecology As Politics (Boston: South End Press, 1982), Questioning Technology, pp. 90-1
224. Gorz, A., Ecology As Politics (Boston: South End Press, 1982), p. 155.
225. Gorz, A., Ecology As Politics (Boston: South End Press, 1982) p. 61.
226. Plutarch's "Solon" in The Rise and Fall of Athens (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960)
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228. Aristotle's The Athenian Constitution (Rhodes, trans., London: Penguin Classics, 1984).
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234. David Held argued that, in Models of Democracy (p. 4),
235. Dickenson, D., Property, Women and Politics: Subjects or Objects? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997)
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270. Richards, V., Lessons from the Spanish Revolution (London: Freedom Press, 1953), pp. 46-7.
271. Richards, V., Lessons from the Spanish Revolution (London: Freedom Press, 1953), pp. 76-81.
272. F.J. Romero Salvadó's account (in The Spanish Civil War, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),
273. "Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship" (first published in American Power and the New Mandarins, New York: New Press, 1969, pp. 23-158
274. Gabriel Jackson, for their uncritical assertion of assumptions. For example, many of Jackson's criticisms of the efficiency of the collectives in The Spanish Republic and the Civil War: 1931-1939 (Princeton University Press, 1967)
275. "The Living Experience of the Spanish Civil War Collectives" (in Newsletter of the Society for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies, vol. 1, no. 2, 1970, pp. 4-11).
276. Many of the claims regarding coercion and forced collectivisation made by Franz Borkenau in The Spanish Cockpit (University of Michigan Press, 1963, first published in 1938)
277. were based on hearsay rather than first hand experience. For example his assessment of the agrarian collective in the Aragon town of Fraga (pp. 104-12)
278. Many of Borkenau's assessments overly relied on Republican controlled media sources, but even Borkenau admitted that the agricultural collectives and industrial cooperatives had increased productivity, improved working conditions, and provided social provisions (p. 184).
279. He also argued that the fall of Málaga to the fascists was a direct consequence of the refusal of the Republican government to allow the people arms to defend themselves (pp. 219-28)
280. because it did not have popular support among workers and peasants and had to impose its authority by force (pp. 282-92).
281. Peirats' accounts of the Republican suppressions of the collectives in The Anarchists in the Spanish Revolution, Chapter 16, and also George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia (New York: Harcourt, 1952).
282. For discussions of the role of the Stalinist Communist Party (the PSUC) in undermining the social revolution in Spain, as well as the CNT-FAI, the POUM, and the liberal democrats within the Republican government see Carr, E.H. The Comintern and the Spanish Civil War (London: Macmillan, 1984)
283. Morrow, F., Revolution and Counter-revolution in Spain (London: New York Publications, 1963)
284. Bolloten, B., The Grand Camouflage: The Communist Conspiracy in the Spanish Civil War (New York: Praeger, 1961)
285. Brenan, G., The Spanish Labyrinth (Cambridge University Press, 1960, first published in 1943)
286. Rocker, R., The Tragedy of Spain (New York: Freie Arbeiter Stinnme, 1937).
287. However, as Romero Salvadó argued (Chapter 3, pp. 152-6,
288. However, as Romero Salvadó argued (Chapter 3, pp. 161-6
289. Guttmann, A., The Wound in the Heart: America and the Spanish Civil War (New York: The Free Press, 1962)
290. and Traina, R.P., American Diplomacy and the Spanish Civil War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968)
291. Richards, M., A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco's Spain, 1936-1945 (Cambridge University Press, 1998)
292. Boyd, C., Historia Patria: Politics, History, and National,Identity in Spain, 1875-1975 (Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 232-301
293. Alted, A., "Education and Political Control" in Graham, H. and Labany, J. (eds), Spanish Cultural Studies: An Introduction (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 196-201.
294. E.P. Thomson urged historians to do, in his famous The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1968, revised 2nd ed.),
295. Gilbert, M. (ed.), A Century of Conflict, 1850-1950: Essays for A.J.P. Taylor (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1967, pp. 245-63),
296. The Social Contract Book III, Chapter 4: "If there were a nation of gods, it would govern itself democratically. A government so perfect is not suited to men." (London: Penguin, 1968, p. 114).
297. Benello, C.G., From the Ground Up: Essays on Grassroots and Workplace Democracy (Boston, Mass: South End Press, 1992).
298. Roussopoulos, D. and Benello, C.G. (eds), Participatory Democracy: Prospects for Democratising Democracy (New York: Black Rose Books, 2005).
299. Rocker, R., Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2004), first published in 1938.
300. Pannekoek, A., Workers' Councils (Edinburgh: AK Press, 2003), first published in 1950
301. Guérin, D., "In Search of a New Society" in Anarchism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970) pp. 41-69
302. Bookchin, M., "Towards a Liberatory Technology" in Roussopoulos and Benello (eds), Participatory Democracy, pp. 85-126
303. Chomsky, N., "The Relevance of Anarcho-syndicalism" BBC London Weekend TV interview with Peter Jay, July 25, 1976, transcript published in Radical Priorities (Otero, ed., Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2003), pp. 211-24,
304. Chomsky On Anarchism (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2005), pp. 133-48.
305. "Post-Revolutionary Property System", first published in 1929 and reprinted in The Anarchist Revolution: Polemical Articles 1924-1931 (London: Freedom Press, 1995), pp. 113-19.
306. Godwin, W., Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness (State University of New York Press, 1972).
307. Cole, G.D.H., Self-Government in Industry (London: Bell & Sons, 1919)
308. Guild Socialism Restated (London: Leonard Parsons, 1920).
309. Bertrand Russell's Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism (London: Routledge, 1970), first published in 1918, drew heavily on the Cole's ideas.
310. Pateman, C., Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1970)
311. The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Liberal Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985)
312. Macpherson, C.B., The Real World of Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1966)
313. The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1977).
314. Barber, B., Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
315. Macpherson, C.B., The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1977)
316. Bobbio, N., Democracy and Dictatorship (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989)
317. Held, D., Models of Democracy (Stanford University Press, 1987)
318. Democracy and the Global Order: From the State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).
319. Kanter, R.M., Commitment and Community (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972)
320. Nisbet, R.A., The Quest for Community (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976)
321. Oldfield, A., Citizenship and Community: Civic Republicanism and the Modern World (London: Routledge, 1990)
322. Putnam, R.D., Making Democracy Work: Civic Tradition in Modern Italy (Princeton University Press, 1993)
323. Oliver, D. and Heater, D., The Foundations of Citizenship (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994)
324. Dagger, R., Civic Virtues: Rights, Citizenship and Republican Liberalism (Oxford University Press, 1997)
325. Tam, H., Communitarianism: A New Agenda for Politics and Citizenship (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).
326. See also Demaine, J. and Entwistle, H. (eds), Beyond Communitarianism: Citizenship, Politics and Education (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996).
327. Strong Democracy, p. 118.
328. Ellul, J., "Technology and Democracy" in Democracy in a Technological Society, pp. 35-50.
329. Biehl, J., The Politics of Social Ecology: Libertarian Municipalism (New York: Black Rose, 1999)
330. Schuman, M.H., Going Local: Creating Self-Reliant Communities in a Global Age (New York: Free Press, 1998)
331. Bookchin, M., From Urbanization to Cities (London: Cassell, 1995)
332. Berry, J.M., Portney, K.E. and Thomson, K., The Rebirth of Urban Democracy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1993)
333. Castells, M., The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983)
334. Roussopoulos, D. (ed.), The City and Radical Social Change (Montreal: Black Rose, 1982)
335. Schecter, S., The Politics of Urban Liberation (Montreal: Black Rose, 1978)
336. Mumford, L., The City in History (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961).
337. Suttles, G., Social Order of the Slum (University of Chicago Press, 1968)
338. Kotler, M., Neighborhood Government (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969)
339. Yates, D., Neighborhood Democracy (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1973)
340. Crenson, M.A., Neighborhood Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983).
341. J.S. Mill also considered this to be essential for the health of representative government.
342. Heater, D., Citizenship (London: Longman, 1999).
343. Tocqueville, A. wrote in Democracy in America (2 vols., London: Fontana, 1968) (p. 76)
344. Bryan, Real Democracy (pp. 286-92) for a discussion of the educational value of town meetings for the development of civic education.
345. Gould, C., Rethinking Democracy (Cambridge University Press, 1988),
346. Philips, A., Democracy and Difference (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993)
347. Frazer, E., and Lacey, N., The Politics of Community (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993).
348. Arendt, H. The Human Condition (University of Chicago Press, 1958), p. 59.
349. Pateman, Participation & Democratic Theory, Chapter 3.
350. Sale, K., Human Scale (New York: Coward McCann and Geoghegan, 1980)
351. Follet, M.P. The New State: Group Organization, the Solution of Popular Government (Magnolia, MA: Peter Smith, 1965, first published in 1919).
352. Corcoran, P., "The Limits of Democratic Theory" in Duncan, G. (ed.), Democratic Theory and Practice (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 13-24.
353. Robert Dahl first proposed the polyarchic theory of democracy (rule by competing minorities, institutions, and organisations) in Preface to Democratic Theory (University of Chicago Press, 1956)
354. further developed it in Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971).
355. Sartori, G., Democratic Theory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962)
356. Sharp, G., Social Power and Political Freedom (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1980)
357. Clegg, H., A New Approach to Industrial Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1960)
358. Eckstein, H., Division and Cohesion in Democracy (Princeton University Press, 1966)
359. Beck, U., The Risk Society (London: Sage, 1992).
360. Preface to Democratic Theory, p. 132.
361. Truman, D.B., The Governmental Process (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1951) for an interesting account of the importance of over-lapping membership for democratic participation. Truman described government as "a protean complex of criss-crossing relationships that change its strength and direction with alterations of power and the standing of interests". (p. 508)
362. Rawls, J., "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited" in University of Chicago Law Review, 64, 3, 1997, pp. 765-6.
363. Galston, Liberal Pluralism, pp. 40-9.
364. Galston, Liberal Pluralism, pp. 66-9.
365. Democracy and its Critics, pp. 182-3.
366. P&DT, Chapter 2.
367. In Emile, Book IV (London: Penguin Classics, 1968),
368. As Pateman argued, in The Problem of Political Obligation (pp. 157-8),
369. Dahl, R.A. and Tufte, E.R., Size and Democracy (Stanford University Press, 1973)
370. Bookchin, M., The Limits of the City (New York: Harper and Row, 1974).
371. Mansbridge, Beyond Adversary Democracy, pp. 59-76.
372. Real Democracy, p. 122,
373. socio-economic diversity has little effect on either levels or equality of participation, pp. 185-6.
374. Dahl also noted this about New England town meetings in On Democracy (New Haven: Yale University, 1998), p. 111.
375. Human Condition, p. 176.
376. Arendt, H., On Revolution (London: Penguin Classics, 2006, first published 1963), pp. 32-3.
377. Op cit, p. 57.
378. Op cit, pp. 178-80.
379. SD, pp. 164-7.
380. SD, p. 170.
381. SD, p. 174.
382. On Revolution, p. 136.
383. On Revolution, p. 166.
384. Dijas, M., The New Class (New York: Praeger, 1957)
385. Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory Chapter 5
386. Hunnius, G., "The Yugoslav System of Decentralisation and Self-Management" in Roussopoulos and Benello (eds), Participatory Democracy, pp. 127-56.
387. Milivojevic, D., The Yugoslav Commune (Belgrade: Medunarodna Politika, 1965).
388. Vlajic, V., The Working Units (Belgrade: The Central Council of the Confederation of Trade Unions of Yugoslavia, 1967).
389. Lydall, H., Yugoslav Socialism Theory & Practice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).
390. Vanek, J., The General Theory of Labour-Managed Market Economies (Cornell University Press, 1970)
391. Neuberger, E. and James, E., "The Yugoslav Self-Management System" in Borenstein, M. (ed.), Plan and Market (Yale University Press, 1973)
392. Granick, D., Enterprise Guidance in Eastern Europe (Princeton University Press, 1975).
393. Thomas, H. and Logan, C., Mondragón: An Economic Analysis (London: Allen & Unwin, 1982)
394. Whyte, W.F. and White, K.K., Making Mondragón: The Growth and Dynamics of the Worker Cooperative Complex (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1991)
395. Kasmir, S., The Myth of Mondragón: Cooperatives, Politics, and Working Class Life in a Basque Town (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996)
396. Macleod, G., From Mondragón to America: Experiments in Community Economic Development (Sidney, Nova Scotia: University College of Cape Breton Press, 1997).
397. Coates, K. (ed.), The New Worker Cooperatives (New York: Spokesman Books, 1976)
398. Rothschild, J. and Whitt, J.A., The Cooperative Workplace: Potentials and Dilemmas of Organizational Democracy and Participation (Cambridge University Press, 1986)
399. Cornforth, C., Thomas, A., Lewis, J. and Spear, R., Developing Successful Worker Cooperatives (London: Sage, 1988)
400. Pencavel, J., Worker Participation: Lessons from the Worker Co-ops of the Pacific Northwest (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001)
401. Smith, V. (ed.), Research in the Sociology of Work, Volume 16: Worker Participation: Current Research and Future Trends (Amsterdam: Elsevier IAI, 2006).
402. Moody, K., Workers in a Lean World (London: Verso, 1997)
403. Moore, T.S., The Disposable Workforce (New York: De Gruyter, 1996).
404. Melman, S., Decision-Making and Productivity (London: Blackwell, 1958)
405. Blauner, R., Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and his Industry (University of Chicago Press, 1966)
406. Jacques, E., Employee Participation and Managerial Authority (London: Tavistock, 1968)
407. Noble, D.F., Forces of Production A Social History of Automation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
408. Kunda, G., Engineering Culture: Control and Commitment in a High- Tech Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).
409. see Coates, K. and Topham, T. (eds), Industrial Democracy in Great Britain (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1967)
410. Blumberg, P., Industrial Democracy: The Sociology of Participation (London: Constable, 1968)
411. Vanek, J., The Labour-Managed Economy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977)
412. Zwerdling, D., Workplace Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1978)
413. Gunn, C.E., Workers' Self- Management in the United States (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984)
414. Greenberg, E.S., Workplace Democracy: The Political Effects of Participation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986)
415. Devine, P., Democracy and Economic Planning (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988)
416. Adams, F.T. and Hanson, G.B., Putting Democracy to Work (San Francisco: Berret-Koehler, 1992)
417. Ellerman, D., Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992)
418. Krimerman, L. and Lidenfeld, F. (eds), When Workers Decide: Workplace Democracy Takes Root in North America (Philadelphia: New Society Publisher, 1992)
419. Lichtenstein, N. and Harris, H.J. (eds), Industrial Democracy in America (Cambridge University Press, 1993)
420. Harris, Z., The Transformation of Capitalist Society (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 1997)
421. Markey, R. (ed.), Innovation and Employee Participation through Workers' Councils: International Case Studies (Brookfield: Ashgate, 1997)
422. Melman, S., After Capitalism: From Managerialism to Workplace Democracy (New York: Knopf, 2001)
423. Albert, M., Parecon: Life after Capitalism (London: Verso, 2003)
424. Gillespie, J., "Towards Freedom in Work" in Roussopoulos and Benello (eds), Participatory Democracy, pp. 64-84.
425. Vanek, J., The Participatory Economy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971)
426. Lidenfeld, F., and Rothschild-Whitt, J., Workplace Democracy and Social Change (Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1982)
427. Dahl, A Preface to Economic Democracy, and, Benello, From the Ground Up, Chapter 10.
428. Vanek, The Participatory Economy.
429. Benello, C.G., "Group Organization and Socio-Political Structure" in Roussopoulos and Benello (eds), Participatory Democracy, pp. 34-49.
430. Yugoslav Socialism: Theory & Practice, p. 210.
431. Bengelsdorf, C., The Problem of Democracy in Cuba: Between Vision and Reality (Oxford University Press, 1994).
432. Sclove, R.E., Democracy and Technology (New York: Guildford Press, 1995), p. 114.
433. Chisholm, D., Coordination without Hierarchy: Informal Structures in Multi-organisational Systems (University of California Press, 1989)
434. Dunn, J., Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future (Cambridge University Press, 1979).
435. Barney, D., Prometheus Wired: The Hope for Democracy in the Age of Network Technology (University of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 25.
436. Fishkin, J., Democracy and Deliberation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991).
437. Kleinman, "Democratizations of Science and Technology" in Kleinman (ed.), Science, Technology & Democracy, pp. 139-65.
438. Sclove, R.E., Democracy and Technology (London: Guildford Press, 1995), p. 5.
439. Sclove, R.E., Democracy and Technology (London: Guildford Press, 1995), p. 5. Chapter 3.
440. Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis (University of California Press, 1979).
441. Polanyi, M., Science, Faith, and Society: A Searching Examination of the Meaning and Nature of Scientific Inquiry (University of Chicago Press, 1964).
442. Roll-Hansen, N., The Lysenko Effect: The Politics of Science (New York: Humanity Books, 2005).
443. Joravsky, D., The Lysenko Affair (University of Chicago Press, 1970).
444. Polanyi's philosophy of science pre-empted Roy Bhaskar's A Realist Theory of Science (Leeds Books, 1975).
445. SFS, p. 25.
446. For detailed discussion, MEP, Chapter 6.
447. Op cit, p. 40.
448. Popper, K.R., The Logic of Scientific Discovery (London: Hutchinson, 1959).
449. Op cit, p. 45.
450. Op cit, pp. 31-4.
451. Op cit, p. 38.
452. Kuhn, T.S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (University of Chicago Press, 1962).
453. Op cit, p. 48.
454. Polanyi pre-empted sociological accounts of science, such as David Bloor's Knowledge and Social Imagery (Oxford: Routledge, 1976).
455. Bruno Latour & Steve Woolgar's Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Cal: Sage, 1979).
456. Harry Collin's Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985).
457. Karin Knorr-Cetina's The Manufacture of Knowledge (Pergamon Press, 1981).
458. Steve Shapin's A Social History of Science (University of Chicago Press, 1994).
459. Op cit, p. 73.
460. Op cit, pp. 16-17.
461. Op cit, p. 57.
462. Op cit, pp. 64-5.
463. Op cit, p. 60.
464. Op cit, p. 61.
465. Op cit, p. 67.
466. Op cit, p. 68.
467. Bakunin, M., God and the State (New York: Dover, 1970), pp. 30-1, first published in 1882.
468. Bakunin, M., God and the State (New York: Dover, 1970), p. 32.
469. Bakunin, M., God and the State (New York: Dover, 1970), pp. 62-4.
470. Drahas, R. and Mayne, R. (eds), Global Intellectual Property Rights: Knowledge, Access, and Development (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
471. Rosenberg, N., Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1982).
472. Flamin, K., Targeting the Computer (Washington, DC.: Brookings Institution, 1987).
473. Smith, M.R., Military Enterprise and Industrial Technology (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1987).
474. Henderson, J., The Globalization of High Technology (London: Routledge, 1989).
475. Lockeretz, W. and Anderson, M.D., Agricultural Research Alternatives (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993).
476. Bonanno, A., Busch, L., Friedland, W., Gouveia, L. and Mingione, E. (eds), From Columbus to ConAgra: The Globalization of Agriculture and Food (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994).
477. Forman, P. and Sanchez-Ron, J.M. (eds), National Military Establishments and the Advancement of Science and Technology: Studies in 20th Century Science (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1996).
478. Snow, C.P., Two Cultures and a Second Look (Cambridge University Press, 1964).
479. Rheingold, H., Virtual Reality (New York: Summit Books, 1991).
480. Negroponte, N., Being Digital (New York: Knopf, 1995).
481. Grossman, L.K., The Electronic Republic: Reshaping Democracy in the Information Age (New York: Viking Press, 1995).
482. Edwards, P., The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996).
483. Tsagarousianou, R., Tambini, D. and Bryan, C. (eds), Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities and Civic Networks (London: Routledge, 1998).
484. Weizenbaum, J., Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgement to Calculation (San Francisco: Freeman, 1976).
485. Lyon, D., The Information Society: Issues and Illusions (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 1988).
486. Salvaggio, J.L. (ed.), The Information Society: Economic, Social and Structural Issues (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1989).
487. Traber, M., The Myth of the Information Revolution: Social and Ethical Implications of Communication Technology (London: Sage, 1986).
488. Barney, D., Prometheus Wired: The Hope for Democracy in the Age of Network Technology (University of Chicago Press, 2000).
489. Barney, D., Prometheus Wired: The Hope for Democracy in the Age of Network Technology (University of Chicago Press, 2000). p. 118.
490. Barney, D., Prometheus Wired: The Hope for Democracy in the Age of Network Technology (University of Chicago Press, 2000). p. 190.
491. Technology and the Character of Contemporary Life, pp. 40-8
492. Crossing the Postmodern Divide (University of Chicago Press, 1992).
493. Kellner, D., "Crossing the Postmodern Divide with Borgmann, or Adventures in Cyberspace" in Technology and the Good Life?, pp. 234-55.
494. Kellner, D., "Crossing the Postmodern Divide with Borgmann, or Adventures in Cyberspace" in Technology and the Good Life?, p. 243
495. Feenberg, Transforming Technology, pp. 91-130.
496. Barber, Strong Democracy, p. xv.
497. Schneider, S., "Is the Citizen-Scientist an Oxymoron?" in Kleinman (ed.), Science, Technology & Democracy, pp. 103-20.
498. Sclove, R.E., "Town Meetings on Technology: Consensus Conferences as Democratic Participation" in Kleinman (ed.), Science, Technology & Democracy, pp. 33-48.
499. Fishkin, J., Democracy and Deliberation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991).
500. Burnheim, J., Is Democracy Possible? The Alternative to Electoral Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
501. Bourque, P. and, Dickson, R., Freenet: Canadian Online Access the Free and Easy Way (Toronto: Stoddard, 1996).
502. Levitt, N. and Gross, P., "The Perils of Democratizing Science" in The Chronicle of Higher Education, October 5th 1994.
503. Petersen, J.C. (ed.), Citizen Participation in Science Policy (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984).
504. Dickson, D., The New Politics of Science (Chicago University Press, 1988).
505. Krimsky, S. and Plough, A., Environmental Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social Process (Dover, MA.: Auburn House, 1988).
506. Balogh, B., Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (Cambridge University Press, 1991).
507. Renn, O., Webler, T. and Weidemann, P. (eds), Fairness and Competence in Citizens Participation: Evaluating Models for Environmental Discourse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1995).
508. Kleinman, D.L. (ed.), Science, Technology & Democracy (New York: SUNY, 2000).
509. Dunlap, T., DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton University Press, 1981).
510. Petersen, J. (ed.), Citizen Participation in Science Policy (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984).
511. Epstein, S., Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
512. Andrews, L., The Clone Age: Adventures in the New World of Reproductive Technology (New York: Henry Holt, 1999).
513. Liberal Pluralism, p. 85.
514. "Misunderstood Misunderstandings: Social Identities and Public Uptake of Science" in Irwin, A. and Wynne, B. (eds), Misunderstanding Science?.
515. The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology (Cambridge University Press, 1996) pp. 19-49.
516. The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology (Cambridge University Press, 1996) pp. 43-4.
517. Wynne, B., "May the Sheep Safely Graze?: A Reflexive Review of the Expert-Local Knowledge Division" in Lash, S., Szerszynski, B. and Wynne, B. (eds), Risk, Environment and Modernity: Towards a New Ecology (London: Sage, 1996).
518. As Jacobsen argued in Technical Fouls, p. 23,
519. Harrison, P., The Greening of Africa: Breaking Through the Battle for Land and Food (London: Paladin Grafton Books, 1987).
520. Appfel-Marglin, F. and Marglin, S. (eds), Decolonising Knowledge: From Development to Dialogue (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996).
521. Benello, C.G., "Group Organization and Socio-Political Structure" in Roussopoulos and Benello (eds), Participatory Democracy, pp. 34-49.
522. Benello, C.G., "Group Organization and Socio-Political Structure" in Roussopoulos and Benello (eds), Participatory Democracy, p. 42.
523. Kahneman, D., Slovic, P. and Tversky, A., Judgement under Uncertainty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
524. Krimsky, S. and Plough, A., Environmental Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social Process (Dover, MA.: Auburn House, 1988).
525. Beck, U., The Risk Society (London: Sage, 1992).
526. Towards A Rational Society: Student Protest, Science, and Politics (Shapiro, trans., Boston: Beacon Press, 1970).
527. Communication and the Evolution of Society (McCarthy, trans., Boston: Beacon Press, 1979).
528. The Theory of Communicative Action (2 volumes, McCarthy, trans., Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990, 1992).
529. "Technology and Science as "Ideology"", published in Towards a Rational Society.
530. Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, p. 303.
531. MSCN.Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, p. 303.
532. MEP.Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, p. 303.
533. Communication and the Evolution of Society, p. 140.
534. Knowledge and Human Interests, p. 194.
535. Arendt, On Revolution, p. 173.
536. Liberal Pluralism, p. 70.
537. Havel, V., The Power of the Powerless (New York: Sharpe, 1979).
538. The Constitution of the United States of America (Bedford, Mass: Applewood Books, n.d.).
539. Articles of Impeachment Against George W. Bush (New York: Melville House, 2006, p. 34
540. Mouffe, C. (ed.), Dimensions of Radical Democracy (London: Verso, 1992).
541. Lister, R., Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
542. Siim, B., Gender and Citizenship (Cambridge University Press, 2000)
543. Pateman, C., The Disorder of Women (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989)
544. Pateman, C., The Sexual Contract (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988).
545. Vandenberg, A., Citizenship and Democracy in a Global Era (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000).
546. Citizenship, p. 5.
547. Marshall, T.H. Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge University Press, 1950)
548. Stevenson, N., Culture and Citizenship (London: Sage, 2001).
549. Hutton, W., The State We're In (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995)
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