Terrestrial nature reserve design at the urban/rural interface

Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 715-737

  Shafer, Craig L ^a  

^a George Wright Society   (United States)

Author keywords

corridors; fragmentation; island biogeography; meta population; population viability; reserves; urban planning

Indexed keywords

EID: 77951262265     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-73412-5_47     Document Type: Chapter

References (203)

1. Adams, L.W., and D.L. Leedy, eds. 1987. Integrating Man and Nature in the Metropolitan Environment. National Institute for Urban Wildlife, Columbia, Md.
2. 1991. Wildlife Conservation in Metropolitan Environments. National Institute for Urban Wildlife, Columbia, Md.
3. Adams, L.W., and L.E. Dove. 1989. Wildlife Reserves and Corridors in the Urban Environment. National Institute for Urban Wildlife, Columbia, Md.
4. Adams, L.W. 1994. Urban Wildlife Habitats: A Landscape Perspective. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
5. Agger, P., and J. Brandt. 1988. Dynamics of small biotopes in Danish agricultural landscapes. Landscape Ecology 1:227-240.
6. Alderman, C.L. 1994. The economics and the role of privately-owned lands used for nature tourism, education, and conversation. In M. Munasinghe, and J. McNeely, eds. Protected Area Economies and Policy: Linking Conservation and Sustainable Development. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 273-317.
7. Alverson, W., W. Kuhlmann, and D.W. Walier, 1994. Wild Forests: Conservation Biology and Public Policy. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
8. Ambuel, B., and S.A. Temple. Area-dependent changes in the bird communities and vegetation of southernWisconsin forests. Ecology 64:1057-1068.
9. Arnold, R.A., and A.E. Goins. 1987. Habitat enhancement techniques for the El Segundo blue butterfly: An urban endangered species. In L.W. Adams, and D.L. Leedy, eds. Integrating Man and Nature in the Metropolitan Environment. National Institute for Urban Wildlife, Columbia, Md., 173-181.
10. Ballou, J.,M. Gilpin, and T. Foose, eds. 1995. PopulationManagement for Survival and Recovery: Analytical Methods and Strategies in Small Population Survival and Recovery. Columbia University Press, New York.
11. Balser, D., A. Bielak, G. De Boer, T. Tobias, G. Abindu, and R.S. Dorney. 1981. Nature reserve designation in a cultural landscape, incorporating island biogeography theory. Landscape and Urban Planning 8:329-347.
12. Barbour, M.G., and V. Whitworth. 1994. California's living landscape. Fremontia 22:3-13.
13. Barrowclough, G.F. 1992. Systematics, biodiversity, and conservation biology. In N. Eldridge, ed. Systematics, Ecology, and the Biodiversity Crisis. Columbia University Press, New York, 121-142.
14. Beatley, T. 1994. Habitat Conservation Planning: Endangered Species and Urban Growth. University of Texas Press, Austin.
15. Beissinger, S.R., and D.R. Osborne. 1982. Effects of urbanization on avian community organization. Condor 84:75-83.
16. Bennett, A.F. 1990. Land use, forest fragmentation and the mammalian fauna at Naringal, South-western Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research 17:325-347.
17. Betz, R.F. 1977. What is a prairie? Nature ConserVancy News 27:9-13.
18. Boucher, N. 1995. Species of the sprawl. Wilderness 58:11-24.
19. Bourliere, F. 1962. Science in the parks in the tropics. In A.B. Adams, ed. First World Conference on National Parks. National Park Service. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 63-68.
20. Boyce, M. 1992. Population viability analysis. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:481-506.
21. Brady, R.F, T. Tobias, P.F.J. Eagles, R. Ohrner, J. Micak, B. Veale, and R.S. Dorney. 1979. A typology for the urban ecosystem and it relationship to larger biogeographic landscape units. Urban Ecology 4:11-28.
22. Brakefield, P.M. 1991. Genetics and the conservation of invertebrates. In I.F. Spellerberg, F.B. Goldsmith, and M.G. Morris, eds. The Scientific Management of Temperate Communities for Conservation. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 45-79.
23. Brown, K.S., and G.G. Brown. 1992. Habitat alteration and species loss in Brazilian forests. In T.C. Whitmore and J.A. Sayer, eds. Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction. Chapman and Hall, London, 119-142.
24. Bryson, B. 1993. Britain's hedgerows. National Geographic 184:94-117.
25. Caughley, G. 1994. Directions in conservation biology. Journal of Animal Ecology 63:215-244.
26. City of San Diego. 1995. Multiple Species Conservation Program: MSCP Plan Executive Summary. Draft mimeo. City of San Diego, San Diego, Calif.
27. Culotta. E. 1995. Minimum population grows larger. Science 270:31-32.
28. DeneVan, W.M. 1992. The pristine myth: The landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:369-385.
29. Department of Natural Resources. 1995. Wisconsin's Biodiversity as a Management Issue: A Report to Department of Natural Resources Managers. Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wis.
30. der Boer, P.J. 1990. The survival value of dispersal in terrestrial arthropods. Biological Conservation 54:175-192.
31. Diamond, J.M. 1975. The island dilemma: Lessons of modern biogeographic studies for the design of natural reserves. Biological Conservation 7:129-146.
32. Dickman, C.R. 1987. Habitat fragmentation and vertebrate species richness in an urban environment. Journal of Applied Ecology 24:337-351.
33. Drayton, B., and R.B. Primack. 1996. Plant species lost in an isolated conservation area in metropolitan Boston from 1894 to 1993. Conservation Biology 10:30-39.
34. Dunn, C.D., and C. Loehle. 1988. Species-area parameter estimation testing the null model of lack of relationship. Journal of Biogeography 15:721-728.
35. Ehnstróm, B., and H.W. Waldén. 1986. Faunavard i Skogsbruket, Del 2, Den lágre Faunan. Skogsstryrelsen, Jónkóping.
36. Ehrenfeld, D.W. 1972. Conserving Life on Earth. Oxford University Press, New York.
37. Ehrlich, P.R. 1989. Discussion: Ecology and resources management-Is ecological theory any good in practice? In J. Roughgarden, R.M. May and S. Levin, eds. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 306-318.
38. Elton, C.S. 1958. The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. Chapman and Hall, London.
39. Emlen, J.T. 1974. An urban bird community in Tucson, Arizona: Derivation, structure, regulation. Condor 76:184-197.
40. Erhardt, A., and J.A. Thomas. 1991. Lepidoptera as indicators of change in the semi-natural grasslands of lowland and upland Europe. In N.M. Collins, and J.A. Thomas, eds. The Conservation of Insects and Their Habitats. Academic Press, London, 213-236.
41. Eversham, B., and M.G. Telfer. 1994. Conservation value of roadside verges for stenotopic heathland Carabidae: Corridors or refugia? Biodiversity and Conservation 3:538-545.
42. Fahrig, L., L.P. Lefkovitch, and H.G. Merriam. 1983. Population stability in a patchy environment. In W.K. Lauenroth, G.V. Skogerboe, and M. Flug, eds. Analysis of Ecological Systems: State-of-the-Art in Ecological Modeling. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 61-67.
43. Fahrig, L., and G. Merriam. 1985. Habitat patch connectivity and population survival. Ecology 66:1762-1768.
44. 1994. Conservation of fragmented populations. Conservation Biology 8:50-59.
45. Falk, D.A. 1991. Joining biological and economic models for conserving plant genetic diversity. In D.A. Falk, and K.E. Holsinger, eds. Genetics and Conservation of Rare Plants. Oxford University Press, New York, 209-223.
46. 1992. From conservation biology to conservation practice: Strategies for protecting plant diversity. In P.L. Fielder, and S.K. Jain, eds. Conservation Biology: The Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation Preservation and Management. Chapman and Hall, London, 397-431.
47. Flink, C.A., and R.M. Searns, eds. 1993. Greenways: A Guide to Planning Design and Development. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
48. Forman, R.T.T. 1995. Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge, London.
49. Forman, R.T.T. and P.N. Moore. 1992. Theoretical foundations for understanding boundaries in landscape mosaics. In A.J. Hansen, and F. di Castri, eds. Landscape Boundaries: Ecological Studies 92. Springer-Verlag, New York, 236-258.
50. Frankel, O.H. 1970. Variation-the essence of life. SirWilliamMacleay memorial lecture. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 95:158-169.
51. 1974. Genetic conservation: our evolutionary responsibility. Genetics 78:53-65.
52. Freemark, K.E., and H.G. Merriam. 1986. Importance of area and habitat heterogeneity to bird assemblages in temperate forest fragments. Biological Conservation 36:115-141.
53. Gauthier, D.A., and L. Patino. 1995. Protected area planning in fragmented, data-poor regions: Examples of the Saskatchewan grasslands. In T.B. Herman, S. Bondrup-Nielson, J.H.Willison, and N.W.P. Munro, eds. Ecosystem Monitoring and Protected Areas. Science and Management of Protected Areas Association, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, 537-547.
54. Gavareski, C.A. 1976. Relation of park size and vegetation to urban bird populations in Seattle, Washington. Condor 78:375-382.
55. Gilbert, O.L. 1991. The Ecology of Urban Habitats. Chapman and Hall, New York.
56. Gill, D., and P. Bonnett. 1973. Nature in the Urban Landscape: A Study of City Ecosystems. York Press, Baltimore, Md.
57. Gilpin, M.E., and I. Hanski, eds. 1991. Metapopulation Dynamics: Empirical and Theoretical Investigations. Academic Press, New York.
58. Gilpin, M.E., and M.E. Soulè. 1986. Minimum viable populations: Processes of species extinction. In M.E. Soulè, ed. Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinaner Associates, Sunderland, Mass., 19-34.
59. Goldsmith, F.B. 1991. The selection of protected areas. In I.F. Spellerberg, F.G. Goldsmith, and M.G. Morris, eds. The Scientific Management of Temperate Communities for Conservation. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 273-291.
60. Green, B. 1981. Countryside Conservation: The Protection and Management of Amenity Ecosystems. George Allen & Unwin, London. 1989. Conservation in cultural landscapes. In D. Western, and M. Pearl, eds. Conservation for the Twenty First Century. Oxford University Press, New York, 182-198.
61. Greenberg, R. 1989. Forest migrants in non-forest habitats on the Yucatan Peninsula. In J.M. Hagan III, and D.W. Johnston, eds. Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Songbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 273-286.
62. Guntenspergen, G. 1983. The minimum size for nature preserves: evidence from southeastern Wisconsin forests. Natural Areas Journal 3:38-46.
63. Hafernik, J.E. 1992. Threats to invertebrate biodiversity: Implications for conservation strategies. In P.L. Fielder, and S.K. Jain, eds. Conservation Biology: The Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation Preservation and Management. Chapman and Hall, London, 171-195.
64. Hanski, I. 1994. Patch-occupancy dynamics in fragmented landscapes. TREE 9:131-135.
65. Hanski, I., and C.D. Thomas. 1994. Metapopulation dynamics and conservation: A spatially explicit model applied to butterflies. Biological Conservation 68:167-180.
66. Hansson, L., ed. 1992. The Ecological Principles of Nature Conservation: Applications in Temperate and Boreal Environments. Elsevier Applied Science, Amsterdam.
67. Harrington, J.A. 1994. Roadside landscapes: prairie species take hold in Midwest rights-of-way. Restoration & Management Notes 12:8-15.
68. Harvey, H.J., and T.C. Meredith. 1981. Ecological studies of Peucedanum palustre and their implications for conservation management at Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire. In H. Synge, ed. The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, England, 365-378.
69. Henderson, M.T., G. Merriam, and J. Wegner. 1985. Patchy environments and species survival: Chipmunks in an agricultural mosaic. Biological Conservation 31:95-105.
70. Henderson, R.A., and E.J. Epstein. 1995. Oak saVannas in Wisconsin. In E.T. LaRoe, G.S. Farris, C.E. Puckett, P.D. Doran, andM.J.Mac, eds. Our Living Resources: A Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 230-232.
71. Hobbs, R.J. 1993. The role of corridors in conservation: Solution or bandwagon? TREE 389-392.
72. Holsinger, K.E. 1995. Population biology for policy makers. BioScience Supplement 1995: S10-S20.
73. Iltis, H. 1959. We need many more scientific areas. Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin 24:13-18.
74. Janzen, D.H. 1988. Management of habitat fragments in a tropical dry forest: Growth. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 75:105-116.
75. Jensen, D.B., M.S. Horn, and J. Harte. 1993. In Our Hands: A Strategy for Conserving California's Biological Diversity. University of California Press, Berkeley.
76. Kelly, P.A., and Rotenberry, J.T. 1993. Buffer zones for ecological reserves in California: Replacing guesswork with science. In J.E. Kelly, ed. Interface between Ecology and Land Development in California. Southern California Academy of Sciences, Los Angeles, 85-92.
77. Kim, K.C. 1993. Biodiversity, conservation and inventory: Why insects matter. Biodiversity and Conservation 2:191-214.
78. Kitchener, D.J., J. Bell, and B.G. Muir. 1982. Birds in Western Australian Wheatbelt reserves-Implications for conservation. Biological Conservation 22:127-163.
79. Klein, B.C. 1989. Effects of forest fragmentation on dung and carrion beetle communities in central Amazonia. Ecology 70:1715-1725.
80. Knaapen, J.P., M. Scheffer, and B. Harmes. 1992. Estimating habitat isolation in landscape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 23:1-16.
81. Kolb, H.H. 1985. Habitat use by foxes in Edinburgh. Terre Vie 139-143.
82. Lande, R. 1988. Genetics and demography in biological conservation. Science 241:1455-1460.
83. 1995. Mutation and conservation. Conservation Biology 9:782-791.
84. Launer, A.E., and D.D. Murphy. 1994. Umbrella species and the conservation of habitat fragments: A case of a threatened butterfly and a Vanishing grassland ecosystem. Biological Conservation 69:145-153.
85. Laurence, W.F. 1991. Edge effects in tropical forest fragments: Application of a model for the design of nature reserves. Biological Conservation 57:205-219.
86. Leopold, A.S. 1949. A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There. Oxford University Press, New York.
87. Levenson, J.B. 1981.Woodlots as biogeographic islands in southeasternWisconsin. In R.L. Burgess, and D.M. Sharpe, eds. Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated Landscapes. Springer-Verlag, New York, 13-39.
88. Levins, R. 1968. Evolution in Changing Environments: Some Theoretical Explorations. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
89. Little, C.A. 1989. Greenways for America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md.
90. Lovejoy, T.E., J.M. Rankin, R.O. Bierregaard, Jr., K.S. Brown, Jr., L.H. Emmons, and M. Van de Voort. 1984. Ecosystem decay of Amazon forest remnants. In M.H. Nitecki, ed. Extinctions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 295-325.
91. Lovejoy, T.E. 1987. National Parks: How big is big enough? In R. Hermann, and T.B. Craig, eds. Conference on Science in National Parks, Volume I: The Fourth Triennial Conference on Research in the National Parks and Equivalent Reserves. The George Wright Society, Hancock, Michigan, and U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C., 49-58.
92. Lovejoy, T.E., R.O. Bierregaard, Jr., A.B. Rylands, J.R. Malcolm, C.E. Quintela, L.H. Harper, K.S. Brown, Jr., A.H. Powell, G.V.N. Powell, H.O.R. Schubart, and M.B. Hays. 1986. In M.E. Soulè, ed. Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass., 257-285.
93. Lynch, J.F., and D.F. Whigham. 1984. Effects of forest fragmentation on breeding bird communities in Maryland, USA. Biological Conservation 28:287-324.
94. Lynch, J.F., and R.F. Whitcomb, 1978. Effects of the insularization of the eastern deciduous forest on avifaunai diversity and turnover. In A. Marmelstein, ed. Classification, Inventory and Analysis of Fish and Wildlife Habitat: Proceedings of a National Symposium, Phoenix, Arizona, January 24-27, 1977. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 461-489.
95. MacArthur, R.H., and E.O. Wilson. 1963. An equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography. Evolution 17:373-387.
96. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
97. Mader, H.J. 1984. Animal habitat isolation by roads and agricultural fields. Biological Conservation 29:81-96.
98. Mader, H.J., C. Schell, and P. Kornacker. 1990. Linear barriers to arthropod movement in the landscape. Biological Conservation 54:209-222.
99. Mann, C.C. 1991. Extinction: Are ecologists crying wolf? Science 253:736-738.
100. Mann, C.C., and M.L. Plummer. 1995. Are wildlife corridors the right path? Science 270:1428-1430.
101. Manson, C. 1994. Natural communities conservation planning: California's new ecosystem approach to biodiversity. Environmental Law 24:603-615.
102. Matlack, G.R. 1993. Sociological edge effects: Spatial distribution of human impact in suburban forest fragments. Environmental Management 17:829-835.
103. Matthiae, P.E., and F. Stearns. 1981. Mammals in forest islands in southeastern Wisconsin. In R.L. Burgess, and D.M. Sharpe, eds. Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated Landscapes. Springer-Verlag, New York, 55-66.
104. McCoy, E.D. 1983. The application of island-biogeographic theory to patches of habitat: How much land is enough? Biological Conservation 25:53-61.
105. McDonnell, M.J., and S.T.A. Pickett. 1990. Ecosystem structure and function along urban-rural gradients: An unexploited opportunity for ecology. Ecology 71:1231-1237.
106. McDonnell, M.J., and Pickett, S.T.A., eds. 1993. Humans as Components of Ecosystems: The Ecology of Subtle Human Effects and Populated Areas. Springer-Verlag, New York.
107. Menges, E.S. 1990. The application of minimum viable population theory to plants. In D.A. Falk, and K.E. Holsinger, eds. Genetics and Conservation of Rare Plants. Oxford University Press, New York, 45-61.
108. 1991. Seed germination percentage increases with population size in a fragmented prairie species. Conservation Biology 5:158-164.
109. Middleton, J., and G. Merriam. 1983. Distribution of woodland species in farmland woods. Journal of Applied Ecology 20:625-644.
110. Mitchell, R.S., C.J. Sheviak, and D.J. Leopold, eds. 1990. Ecosystem Management: Rare Species and Significant Habitats. New York State Museum, Albany, New York.
111. Mladenoff, D.J., M.A. White, T.R. Crow. and J. Pastor. 1994. Applying principles of landscape design and management to integrate old-growth forest enhancement and commodity use. Conservation Biology 8:752-762.
112. Moldenke, R.A., and J.D. Lattin. 1990. Dispersal characteristics of old-growth soil arthropods. Northwest Environmental Journal 6:408-409.
113. Molloy, B.P.J. 1971. Possibilities and problems for nature conservation in a closely settled area. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society 18:25-37.
114. Moon, C. 1990. Koala corridors: A case study from Lismore. In D. Lunney, C.A. Uquhart, and P. Reed, eds. Koala Summit: Managing Koalas in New South Wales. Proceedings of the Koala Summit held at the University of Sydney 7-8 November 1988. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurtsville, NSW, Australia, 87-92.
115. Moore, N.W. 1962. The heaths of Dorset and their conservation. Journal of Ecology 50:369-391.
116. Murphy, D.D., K.E. Freas, and S.B. Weiss. 1990. An environment- metapopulation approach to population viability analysis for a threatened invertebrate. Conservation Biology 4:41-51.
117. National Park Service. 1980. State of the Parks-1980: A Report to the Congress. National Park Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
118. National Research Council. 1993. A Biological Survey for the Nation. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
119. 1995. Science and the Endangered Species Act. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
120. Nigh, T.A.,W.L. Pflieger, P.L. Redfearn, Jr.,W.A. Schroeder, A.R. Templeton, and F.R. Thompson III. 1992. The Biodiversity of Missouri: Definitions, Status, and Recommendations for its Conservation. Conservation Commission of the State of Missouri, Jefferson City.
121. Nilsson, S.G. 1992. Forests in the temperate-boreal transition-natural and man-made features. In L. Hansson, ed. Ecological Principles of Nature Conservation: Applications in Temperate and Boreal Environments. Elsevier, London, 373-393.
122. Noss, R.F. 1987. Corridors in real landscapes: A reply to Simberloff and Cox. Conservation Biology 1:159-164.
123. Noss, R.F., E.T. LaRoe, III, andM.S. Scott. 1995. Endangered Ecosystems of the United States: A Preliminary Assessment of Loss and Degradation. National Biological Survey, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
124. Nunney, L., and K.A. Campbell. 1993. Assessing minimum viable population size: Demography meets population genetics. TREE 8:234-239.
125. Nyland, R.D., W.C. Zipperer, and D.B. Hill. 1986. The development of forest islands in exurban central New York state. Landscape and Urban Planning 13:111-123.
126. Opdam, P., G. Rijsdijk, and F. Hustings. 1985. Bird communities in small woods in an agricultural landscape: Effects of area and isolation. Biological Conservation 34:333-352.
127. Opler, P.A., H.G. Baker, and G.W. Frankie. 1977. Recovery of tropical lowland forest ecosystems. In J. Cairns, Jr., K.L. Dickson, and E.E. Herricks, eds. Recovery and Restoration of Damaged Ecosystems. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, 379-421.
128. Ouborg, N.J. 1993. Isolation, population size and extinction: The classical and metapopulation approaches applied to vascular plants along the Dutch Rhine-system. Oikos 66:298-308.
129. Owen, D.F. 1978. Insect diversity in an English suburban garden. In G.W. Frankie, and C.S. Koehler, eds. Perspectives in Urban Entomology. Academic Press, New York, 13-29.
130. Panzer, R., D. Stillwaugh, R. Gnaedinger, and G. Derkovitz. 1995. Prevalence of remnant dependence among the prairie- and saVanna-inhabiting insects of the Chicago region. Natural Areas Journal 15:101-116.
131. Pimental, D., U. Stachow, D.A. Takacs, H.W. Brubaker, A.R. Dumas, J.J. Meaney, J.A.S. O'Neil, D.E. Onsi, and D.B. Corzilius. 1992. Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry systems. BioScience 42:354-362.
132. Platt, R.H., R.A. Rowntree, and P.C. Muick, eds. The Ecological City. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Price, P.W. 1984. Insect Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
133. Prime, R. 1992. Hinduism and Ecology: Seeds of Truth. Cassell, London.
134. Reid, W.V., and K.R. Miller, 1989. Keeping Options Alive: The Scientific Basis for Conserving Biodiversity. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
135. Reid, T.S., and D.D. Murphy. 1995. Providing a regional context for local conservation action. BioScience Supplement 1995: S84-S90.
136. Remmert, H., ed. 1994. Minimum Animal Populations. Springer-Verlag, New York.
137. Robbins, C.S., D.K. Dawson, and B.A. Dowell. 1989a. Habitat area requirements of breeding forest birds in the Middle Atlantic States. Wildlife Monographs 103:1-34.
138. Robbins, C.S., J.R. Sauer, R.S. Greenberg, and S. Droege. 1989b. Population declines in North American birds that migrate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 86:7658-7662.
139. Rosenzweig, M.L. 1995. Species Diversity in Space and Time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
140. Ruggiero, L.F., G.D. Hayward, and J.R. Squires. 1994. Viability analysis in biological evaluations: Concepts of population viability analysis, biological population, and ecological scale. Conservation Biology 8:364-372.
141. Samways, M.F. 1994. Insect Conservation Biology. Chapman and Hall, London.
142. Saunders, D., and R. Hobbs. 1989. Corridors for conservation. New Scientist 121:63-68.
143. Saunders, D.A., and R.J. Hobbs, eds. 1991. Nature Conservation: The Role of Corridors. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia.
144. Schelhas, J., and R. Greenberg. 1993. Forest Patches in the Tropical Landscape and the Conservation of Migratory Birds. Migratory Bird Conservation Policy Paper No. 1. Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C.
145. Schemske, D.W., B.C. Husband, M.H. Ruckelhaus, C. Goodwillie, I.M. Parker, and J.G. Bishop. 1994. Evaluating approaches to the conservation of rare and endangered plants. Ecology 75:584-606.
146. Schonewald-Cox, C.M., and J.W. Bayless. 1986. The boundary model: A geographical analysis of design and conservation of nature reserves. Biological Conservation 38:305-322.
147. Scott, J.M., F. Davis, B. Csuti, R. Noss, B. Butterfield, C. Groves, H. Anderson, S. Caicco, F. D'Erchia, T.C. Edwards, Jr., J.G. Ulliman and R.G. Wright. 1993. Gap analysis: A geographical approach to protection of biological diversity. Wildlife Monographs 123:1-41.
148. Seymour, W.N., Jr., ed. 1969. Small Urban Spaces. New York University Press, New York.
149. Shafer, C.L. 1990. Island Theory and Conservation Practice. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
150. 1994. Beyond park boundaries. In E.A. Cook, and H.N. Van Lier, eds. Landscape Planning and Ecological Networks. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 201-223.
151. 1995. Values and shortcomings of small reserves. BioScience 45:80-88.
152. Selecting and designing nature reserves on islands. Boletin Do Museu Municipal Do Funchal (in press).
153. Shaffer, M.L. 1981. Minimum population sizes for species conservation. BioScience 31:131-134.
154. 1987. Minimum viable populations: Coping with uncertainty. In M. Soulè, ed. Viable Populations for Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 69-86.
155. Simberloff, D.S., and L.G. Abele. 1976. Island biogeography theory and conservation practice. Science 191:285-286.
156. Simberloff, D., and J. Cox. 1987. Consequences and costs of conservation corridors. Conservation Biology 1:63-71.
157. Simberloff, D.F. 1986a. Are we on the verge of mass extinction in tropical rain forests? In D.K. Elliott, ed. Dynamics of Extinction. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 165-180.
158. 1986b. The proximate causes of extinction. In D.M. Raup, and D. Jablonski, eds. Patterns and Processes in the History of Life. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 259-276.
159. 1988. The contribution of population and community ecology to conservation biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19:473-511.
160. Simberloff, D.S., J. Farr, J. Cox, and D. Mehlman. 1992. Movement corridors: Conservation bargains or poor investments. Conservation Biology 6:493-504.
161. Smith, D.S., and P.C. Hellmund, eds. 1993. Ecology of Greenways. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
162. Soberon, J.M. 1992. Island biogeography and conservation practice. Conservation Biology 1:161.
163. Soulè, M.E. 1987a. Introduction. In M.W. Soulè, ed. Viable Populations for Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1-10.
164. 1987b. Where do we go from here? In M.E. Soulè, ed. Viable Populations for Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 175-183.
165. 1991. Land use planning and wildlife maintenance: Guidelines for conserving wildlife in an urban landscape. Journal of the American Planning Association 57:313-323.
166. Soulè, M.E., and D.F. Simberloff. 1986. What do genetics and ecology tell us about the design of nature reserves? Biological Conservation 35:19-40.
167. Soulè, M.E., D.T. Bolger, A.C. Alberts, J. Wright, M. Sorice, and M.S. Hill. 1988. Reconstructed dynamics of rapid extinctions of chaparral-requiring birds in urban habitat islands. Conservation Biology 2:75-92.
168. Specht, R.L., E.M. Roe, and V.H. Boughton. 1974. Conservation of major plant communities in Australia and Papua- New Guinea. Australian Journal of Botany Supplemental Series 7:1-667.
169. Spencer, J.W., and K.J. Kirby. 1992. An inventory of ancient woodland for England and Wales. Biological Conservation 62:77-93.
170. Spirn, A.W. 1984. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design. Basic Books, New York.
171. Stein, B.A. 1996. Putting nature on the map. Nature ConserVancy 46:25-27.
172. Terman, M.R. 1994. The promise of natural links. Golf Course Management December: 52-59.
173. The Nature ConserVancy. 1982. Preserving Our Natural Heritage Volume III: Private, Academic, and Local Government Activities. National Park Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
174. Thomas, C.D. 1990. What do real population dynamics tell us about minimum viable population sizes? Conservation Biology 4:324-327.
175. Thomas, J.A. 1991. Rare species conservation: Case studies of European butterflies. In I.F. Spellerberg, F.B. Goldsmith, and M.G. Morris, eds. The Scientific Management of Temperate Communities for Conservation. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 149-197.
176. Thomas, J.A., and M.G. Morris. 1995. Rates and patterns of extinction among British invertebrates. In J.H. Lawton, and R.M. May, eds. Extinction Rates. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 111-130.
177. Tilghman, N.G. 1987. Characteristics of urban woodlands affecting breeding bird diversity and abundance. Landscape and Urban Planning 14:481-495.
178. Tscharntke, T. 1992. Fragmentation of Phragmites habitats, minimum viable population size, habitat suitability, and local extinction of moths, midges, flies, aphids, and birds. Conservation Biology 6:530-536.
179. Udall, S.T. 1963. The Quiet Crisis. Avon Books, New York.
180. Usher, M.B. 1986. Wildlife conservation evaluation: Attributes, criteria and values. In M.B. Usher, ed. Wildlife Conservation Evaluation. Chapman and Hall, London, 3-44.
181. Van Apeldoorn, R.C., W.T. Oostenbrink, A. Van Winden, and F.F. Van der Zee. 1992. Effects of habitat fragmentation on the bank vole, Clethrionomys glareolus, in agricultural landscape. Oikos 65:265-274.
182. Van der Maarel. 1975. Man-made ecosystems in environmental management and planning. In W.H. Van Dobben, and R.H. Lowe-McConnell, eds. Unifying Concepts in Ecology. Dr. W. Junk B.V. Publishers, The Hague, 263-274.
183. Vestal, A.G. 1949. Minimum Areas for Different Vegetations: Their Determination from Species-Area Curves. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
184. Vitousek, P.M., L.L. Loope, and C.P. Stone. 1987. Introduced species in Hawaii: Biological effects and opportunities for ecological research. TREE 2:224-227.
185. Vizyova, A. 1986. Urban woodlots as islands for land vertebrates: A preliminary attempt on estimating the barrier effects of structural units. Ecology (CSSR) 5:407-419.
186. Waller, D.M. 1993. The statics and dynamics of mating system evolution. In N. Thornhill, ed. The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 97-117.
187. Warren, M.S. 1987. The ecology and conservation of the heath fritillary butterfly, Mellicta athalia, III. Population dynamics and the effect of habitat management. Journal of Applied Ecology 24:499-513.
188. Warren, M.S. 1992. The conservation of British butterflies. In R.L.H. Dennis, ed. The Ecology of Butterflies in Britain. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 246-274.
189. Weaver, M., and M. Kellman. 1981. The effects of forest fragmentation on woodlot tree biotas in Southern Ontario. Journal of Biogeography 8:199-210.
190. Webb, N.R., and A.H. Vermaat. 1990. Changes in vegetational diversity on remnant heathland fragments. Biological Conservation 53:253-264.
191. Wegner, J.F., and G. Merriam. 1979. Movements of birds and small mammals between a wood and adjoining farmland habitats. Journal of Applied Ecology 16:349-357.
192. Westhoff, V. 1970. New criteria for nature reserves. New Scientist 46:108-113.
193. Whyte, W.H. 1968. The Last Landscape. Anchor Books, Garden City, N.Y.
194. Widén, B., and L. Svensson. 1992. Conservation of genetic variation in plants-the importance of population size and gene flow. In L. Hansson, ed. Ecological Principles of Nature Conservation: Applications in Temperate and Boreal Environments. Elsevier, London, 113-161.
195. Wilcove, D.S. 1985. Nest predation in forest tracts and the decline of migratory songbirds. Ecology 66:1211-1214.
196. Wilcove, D., and D. Murphy. 1991. The spotted owl controversy and conservation biology. Conservation Biology 5:261-262.
197. Wilcox, B.A. 1984. In situ conservation of genetic resources: Determinants of minimum area requirements. In J.A. McNeely, and K.R. Miller, eds. National Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 639-647.
198. Williamson, M. 1988. Relationship of species number to area, distance,
199. Wilson, E.O. 1987. The little things that run the world (the importance and conservation of invertebrates). Conservation Biology 1:344-345.
200. 1992. The Diversity of Life. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
201. Woolhouse, M.E.J. 1985. The theory and practice of the species-area effect applied to breeding birds of British woods. Biological Conservation 27:315-332.
202. Wright, G.M., J.S. Dixon, and B.H. Thompson. 1933. Fauna of the National Parks: A Preliminary Survey of Faunal Relations in National Parks. Fauna Series No. 1. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
203. Wright, S.J. 1990. Conservation in a variable environment: the optimal size of reserves. In B. Shorrocks, and I.R. Swingerland, eds. Living in a Patchy Environment. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 187-195.