MRI of the Achilles tendon: A comprehensive review of the anatomy, biomechanics, and imaging of overuse tendinopathies

Acta Radiologica

Volumn 51, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 438-454

  Pierre Jerome, Claude ^a,b   Moncayo, Valeria ^a   Terk, Michael R ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Sahlgrenska University Hopsital   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Atypical tear; Haglund's deformity; Paratenonitis; Retro Achilles bursitis; Retrocalcaneal bursitis; Tendinosis; Tendon calcifi cation. tendon ossifi cation; Tendon re tear; Tendon tear; Transplanted Achilles tendon

Indexed keywords

ACHILLES; ACHILLES TENDONS; ATYPICAL TEAR; HAGLUND'S DEFORMITY; PARATENONITIS; TENDINOSIS; TENDON TEAR;

ACCIDENTS; BIOMECHANICS; BIOMINERALIZATION; DEFORMATION; PATHOLOGY; POSITIVE IONS;

TENDONS;

CONTRAST MEDIUM;

ACHILLES TENDON; BIOMECHANICS; CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDER; HISTOLOGY; HUMAN; INJURY; METHODOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; TENDINITIS;

ACHILLES TENDON; BIOMECHANICS; CONTRAST MEDIA; CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDERS; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; TENDINOPATHY;

EID: 77950989491     PISSN: 02841851     EISSN: 16000455     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/02841851003627809     Document Type: Review

References (76)

1. Moller A, Astrom M, Westlin N. Increasing incidence of Achilles tendon rupture. Acta Orthop Scand 1996;67: 479-481 (Pubitemid 26393542)
2. Schweitzer ME, Karasick D. MR Imaging of the disorders of the Achilles tendon. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000;175: 613-625
3. Jozsa J, Kvist M, Balint BJ, Reffy A, Jarvinen M, Lehto M, et al. The role of recreational sports activity in Achilles tendon rupture: a clinical, pathoanatomical and sociological study of 292 cases. Am J Sports Med 1989;17:338-343 (Pubitemid 19142935)
4. S un YS, Yen TF, Chie LH. Ruptures Achilles tendon: report of 40 cases. Zhonghua Yixue Zaxhi 1977;57:94-98
5. Beddy P, Dunne R, de Blacam C. Achilles Wiiitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009;192:W79.
6. Schepsis AA, Jones H, Haas AL. Achilles tendon disorders in athletes. Am J Sports Med 2002;30:287-305. (Pubitemid 34241273)
7. Carden DG, Jonathan N, Chalmers J, Lunn P, Ellis J. Rupture of the calcaneal tendon: the early and late management. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1987;69B:416-420 (Pubitemid 17098477)
8. Kvist M, Jarvinen M. Zur Epidemiologie von sport verletzungen und fehlbelastungen: patienten analyse einer sportmedizinisher, Polyklinik. Med Sport (Roma) 1981; 20:375-378
9. Sandelin J, Kivilehto O, Santavirta S. Outcome of sports injuries treated in a causality department. Br J Sports Med 1985;19:103-106
10. Houshian S, Tscherning T, Riegels-Nielsen P. The epidemiology of Achilles tendon rupture in a Danish county. Injury 1998;29:651-654 (Pubitemid 29000741)
11. Saltzman CL, Tearse DS. Achilles tendon injuries. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 1998;6:316-325
12. Sartoris DJ, Resnick D. Magnetic resonance imaging of tendons in the foot and ankle. J Foot Surg 1989;28: 370-377 (Pubitemid 19228397)
13. Harris CA, Peduto AJ. Achilles tendon imaging. Australas Radiol 2006;50:513-525
14. Palalastanga N. Muscles plantarflexing the ankle joint. In: Anatomy and human movement: structure and function. Oxford, UK: Heinemann Medical Books; 1989. p. 360-363
15. Paavola M, Kannus P, Jarvinen TA, Khan K, Jozsa L, Jarvinen M. Achilles tendinopathy. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2002;84A:2062-2076 (Pubitemid 35283376)
16. Hess GP, Cappiello WL, Poole RM, Hunter SC. Prevention and treatment of overuse tendon injuries. Sports Med 1989;8:371-384 (Pubitemid 20064215)
17. Carr AJ, Norris SH. The blood supply of the calcaneal tendon. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1989;71:100-101
18. Astrom M, Westlin N. Blood flow in the human Achilles tendon assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry. J Orthop Res 1994;12:246-252 (Pubitemid 24146890)
19. Ly JQ, Bui-Mansfield LT. Anatomy of and abnormalities associated with Kager's fat pad. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004;182:147-154
20. Snow SW, Bohne WHO, DiCarlo E, Chang VK. Anatomy of the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia in relation to the calcaneus in various age groups. Foot Ankle Int 1995;16: 418-421
21. Cummins EJ, Anson BJ, Carr BW. The structure of the calcaneal tendon (of Achilles) in relation to orthopedic surgery. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1946;83:107-116
22. Mafulli N, Ewen SW, Waterston SW, Reaper J, Barrass V. Tenocytes from ruptured and tendinopathic Achilles tendons produce greater quantities of type III collagen than tenocytes from normal Achilles tendons. An in vitro model of human tendon healing. Am J Sports Med 2000;28:499-505. (Pubitemid 30602177)
23. Jozsa L, Balint BJ, Reffy A, Demel Z. Fine structural alterations of collagen fibers in degenerative tendinopathy. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 1984;103:47-51. (Pubitemid 14145856)
24. Whittaker P, Canham PB. Demonstration of quantitative fabric analysis of tendon collagen using two-dimensional polarized light microscopy. Matrix 1991;11:56-62.
25. Sutherland DH. An electromyographic study of the plantar flexors of the ankle in normal walking on the level. J Bone Joint Surg 1966;48A:66-71.
26. Komi PV, Fukashiro S, Jarvinen M. Biomechanical loading of Achilles tendon during normal locomotion. Clin Sports Med 1992;1:521-531
27. Mann RA. Biomechanics of the foot and ankle. In: Mann RA, Coughlin MJ, editors. Surgery of the foot and ankle. Sixth edition. St Louis: Mosby; 1993.
28. Perry J. Anatomy and biomechanics of the hindfoot. Clin Orthop 1983;177:9-15. (Pubitemid 13077736)
29. Allenmark C. Partial Achilles tendon tears. Clin Sports Med 1992;11:759-769
30. Clain MR, Baxter DE. Achilles tendinitis {Foot fellow's review}. Foot Ankle 1992;13:482-487
31. Leppilahti J, Korpelainen R, Karpakka J, Kwist M, Orava S. Rupture of the Achilles tendon: relationship to inequality in length of legs and to patterns in the foot and ankle. Foot Ankle Int 1998;19:683-687 (Pubitemid 28478362)
32. Alfredson H, Pietila T, Ohberg L, Lorentzon R. Achilles tendinosis and calf muscle strength. The effect of short-term immobilization after surgical treatment. Am J Sports Med 1998;26:166-171 (Pubitemid 28157969)
33. James SL, Bates BT, Osternig LR. Injuries to runners. Am J Sports Med 1978;6:40-50.
34. Myerson MS, McGarvey W. Disorders of the Achilles tendon insertion and Achilles tendinitis. Instr Course Lect 1999;48:211-218
35. Saltzman CL, Tearse DS. Achilles tendon injuries. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 1998;6:316-325
36. Arndt A, Bruggeman GP, Koebbe, Segesser B. Asymmetrical loading of the human triceps surae: II. Differences in calcaneal moments. Foot Ankle Int 1999;20: 450-455 (Pubitemid 29344681)
37. Resnick D, Feingold ML, Curd J, Niwayama G, Goergen TG. Calcaneal abnormalities in articular disorders. Rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis arthritis, and Reiter syndrome. Radiology 1977;125:355-366 (Pubitemid 8202249)
38. Cheung Y, Rosenberg ZS, Magee T, Chinitz L. Normal anatomy and pathologic conditions of ankle tendons: current imaging techniques. Radiographics 1992;12:429-444
39. Resnick CS, Foster WC. Achilles tendon ossification and fracture. Can Assoc Radiol J 1990;41:153-154
40. Ohashi K, El-Khouri GY, Bennett DL. MDCT of tendon abnormalities using volume-rendered images. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004;182:161-165 (Pubitemid 38017736)
41. Fornage BD. Achilles tendon: US examination. Radiology 1986;159:759-764
42. Paavola M, Paakkala T, Kannus P, Jarvinen M. Ultrasonography in the differential diagnosis of Achilles tendon injuries and related disorders. A comparison between pre-operative ultrasonography and surgical findings. Acta Radiol 1998; 39:612-619 (Pubitemid 128451521)
43. Koivunen-Niemela T, Parkkola K. Anatomy of the Achilles tendon (tendo calcaneus) with respect to tendon thickness measurements. Surg Radiol Anat 1995;17:263-268
44. Bottger BA, Schweitzer ME, El-Noueam K, Desai M. MR imaging of the normal and abnormal retrocalcaneal bursae. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;170:1239-1241 (Pubitemid 28210935)
45. Mantel D, Flautre B, Bastian D, Delforge PM, Delvalle A, Leclet H. Structural MRI study of the Achilles tendon: correlation with microanatomy and histology. J Radiol 1996;77:261-265
46. Erickson J, Prost RW, Timins ME. "Magic angle" effect: background physics and clinical relevance. Radiology 1993;188:23-25
47. Schepsis AA, Leach RE. Surgical management of Achilles tendinitis. Am J Sports Med 1987;15:308-315
48. Buchbinder MR, Napora NJ, Biggs EW. The r elationship of abnormal pronation to chondromalacia of the patella in distance runners. J Am Podiatry Assoc 1979;69:159-162
49. Astrom M, Rausing A. Chronic Achilles tendinopathy. A survey of surgical and histopathologic findings. Clin Orthop 1995;316:151-164
50. Taunton JE, Ryan MB, Clement DB, McKenzie DC, Lloyd-Smith DR, Zumbo BD. A prospective study of running injuries: the Vancouver Sun Run "In Training" clinics. Br J Sports Med 2003;37:239-244
51. Leach RE, James S, Wasilewski S. Achilles tendinitis. Am J Sports Med 1981;9:93-98 (Pubitemid 11159089)
52. Ostlere S. Imaging the ankle and foot. Imaging 2003;15: 242-269 (Pubitemid 351728198)
53. Clement DB, Taunton JE, Smart GW. Achilles tendinitis and peritendinitis: etiology and treatment. Am J Sports Med 1984;12:179-184
54. Teitz CC, Garrett WE Jr, Miniaci A, Lee MH, Mann RA. Tendon problems in athletic individuals. Instr Course Lect 1997;46:569-582 (Pubitemid 27057462)
55. Kannus P, Jozsa L. Histopathological changes preceding spontaneous rupture of a tendon. A controlled study of 591 patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1991;73:1507-1525
56. Strocchi R, De Pasquale V, Guizzardi S, Govoni P, Facchini A, Raspanti M, et al. Human Achilles tendon: morphological and morphometric variations as a function of age. Foot Ankle 1991;12:100-104
57. Gabel S, Manoli A III. Neglected rupture of the Achilles tendon (Foot fellow's review). Foot Ankle Int 1994;14:512-517
58. Zanetti M, Metzdorf A, Kundert HP, Zollinger H, Vienne P, Seifert B, et al. Achilles tendons: clinical relevance of neovascularization diagnosed with power Doppler US. Radiology 2003;227:556-560 (Pubitemid 36514777)
59. Fox JM, Blazina ME, Jobe FW, Kerlan RK, Carter VS, Shields CL Jr, et al. Degeneration and rupture of the Achilles tendon. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 1997;107:221-224
60. Narvaez JA, Narvaez J, Ortega R, Aguilera C, Sanchez A, Andia E. Painful heel: MR imaging findings. Radiographics 2000;20:333-352
61. Sella EJ, Caminear DS, McLarney EA. Haglund's syndrome. J Foot Ankle Surg 1998;37:110-114
62. Turlik MA. Seronegative arthritis as a cause of heel pain. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 1990;7:369-375
63. Olivieri I, Padula A, Salvarani C, Cantini F, Barozzi L. Retrocalcaneal bursitis in polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann Rheum Dis 2001;60:1160-1161
64. Ly JQ, Bui-Mansfield LT. Anatomy of and abnormalities associated with Kager's fat pad. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004;182:147-154
65. Leppilahti J, Puranen J, Orava S. Incidence of Achilles tendon rupture. Acta Orthop Scand 1996;67:277-279 (Pubitemid 26237687)
66. Read JW, Peduto AJ. Tendon imaging. Sports Med Arthrosc Rev 2000;8:32-55.
67. Mahler F, Fritschy D. Partial and complete ruptures of the Achilles tendon and local corticosteroid injections. Br J Sports Med 1992;26:7-14.
68. McGarvey WC, Singh D, Trevino SG. Partial Achilles tendon ruptures review. Foot Ankle Int 1996;17:496-498
69. Movin T, Gad A, Reinholt FP, Rolf C. Tendon pathology in long-standing Achillodynia: biopsy findings in 40 patients. Acta Orthop Scand 1997;68:170-175 (Pubitemid 27202080)
70. Kujala UM, Jarvinen M, Natri A, Lehto M, Nelimarkka O, Hurme M, et al. ABO blood groups and musculoskeletal injuries. Injury 1992;23:131-133
71. Millar AP. Strains of the posterior calf musculature (tennis leg). Am J Sports Med 1979;7:172-174
72. Miller WA. Rupture of the musculotendinous juncture of the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle. Am J Sports Med 1977;5:191-193
73. Brewer BJ. Mechanism of injury to the musculotendinous unit: instructional lecture. Am Acad Orthop Surg 1960; 17:354-358
74. Stauber WT. Eccentric action of muscles: physiology, injury and adaptation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1989;17:157-185
75. Bonis J. Acute Wiitis. N Engl J Med 2007;356:2431-2432
76. Robinson RJ, Barron DA, Grainger AJ, Venkatesh R. Wii knee. Emerg Radiol 2008;15:255-257