Graphical methods and cold war scientific practice: The Stommel diagram's intriguing journey from the physical to the biological environmental sciences

Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 1-47

  Vance, Tiffany C ^a,b   Doel, Ronald E ^c  

^a ALASKA FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^b SAN FRANCISCO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Henry Stommel; Knowledge transmission; Loren Haury; Marine ecology; Multidimensional; Physical oceanography; Scientific diagrams; Scientific techniques

Indexed keywords

MARINE TOXIN;

BIOLOGY; ECOLOGY; ECONOMICS; ECOSYSTEM; EDUCATION; FOOD INDUSTRY; GOVERNMENT; HISTORY; KNOWLEDGE; LABORATORY PERSONNEL; LEGAL ASPECT; OCEANOGRAPHY; PERSONNEL; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; WATER POLLUTION;

ECOLOGY; ECOSYSTEM; FISHERIES; GOVERNMENT AGENCIES; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; KNOWLEDGE; LABORATORY PERSONNEL; MARINE BIOLOGY; MARINE TOXINS; OCEANOGRAPHY; RESEARCH PERSONNEL; WATER POLLUTION;

EID: 77950765569     PISSN: 19391811     EISSN: 1939182X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/hsns.2010.40.1.1     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. These include Minkowski diagrams in physics and topside ionograms in the atmospheric sciences; on these developments see respectively Stanley Goldberg, Understanding Relativity: Origin and Impact of a Scientific Revolution (Boston: Birkhauser, 1984)
2. and Edward Jones-Imhotep, "Disciplining Technology: Electronic Reliability, Cold-War Military Culture and the Topside Ionogram," History and Technology 17 (2000): 125-75
3. Oceanographers used two-dimensional temperature-salinity (T-S) diagrams starting in the 1910s with the research of Bjørn Helland-Hansen; for an introduction see Eric Mills, The Fluid Envelope of Our Planet: How the Study of Ocean Currents Became a Science (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009): 180
4. Loren R. Haury, John A. McGowan, and Peter H. Wiebe, "Patterns and Processes in the Time-Space Scales of Plankton Distribution," in Spatial Pattern in Plankton Communities, ed. John H. Steele (New York: Plenum Press, 1978), 277-327
5. On the significance of the Stommel Diagram for contemporary ecology, see Simon A. Levin, "The Problem of Pattern and Scale in Ecology: The Robert H. MacArthur Award Lecture," Ecology 73, no. 6 (1992): 1943-67, esp. 1943-44
6. for an overview see David C. Schneider, "The Rise of the Concept of Scale in Ecology," BioScience 51, no. 7 (2001): 545-53, on 548
7. Thomas L. Hankins, "Blood, Dirt, and Nomograms: A Particular History of Graphs," Isis 90 (1999): 50-80, on 52
8. John Herschel, quoted in Thomas L. Hankins, "A 'Large and Graceful Sinuosity': John Herschel's Graphical Method," Isis 97 (2006): 605-33, on 625
9. William Whewell, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon Their History (London: John W. Parker, 1840)
10. quoted in Michael S. Reidy, Tides of History: Ocean Science and Her Majesty's Navy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 191; on Whewell's larger institutional and professional aims, see 6-17 and 122-295. As Reidy notes, "As science expanded geographically and the object became to find the relationship among increasingly complex variables, the visual graph emerged as a means of accurate and useful representation. The graph was ideally suited to represent massive amounts of data at a single synoptic glance; visual trends appeared in the data that were difficult if not impossible to discern through tables." (191)
11. Notable exceptions, in addition to Hankins, "Blood, Dirt" (ref. 3)
12. include two important recent contributions by David Kaiser: Drawing Theories Apart: The Dispersion of Feynman Diagrams in Postwar Physics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)
13. and David Kaiser, ed., Pedagogy and the Practice of Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005)
14. see also Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar, Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990)
15. Martin J. S. Rudwick, "The Emergence of a Visual Language for Geological Science, 1760-1840," History of Science 14 (1976): 149-95
16. and Michael Friendly, "Milestones in the History of Data Visualization: A Case Study in Statistical Historiography," in Classification: The Ubiquitous Challenge, ed. C. Weihs and W. Gaul (New York: Springer Verlag, 2005), 1-19
17. Oceanographer Carl Wunsch described Stommel as "probably the most original and important physical oceanographer of all time"; see Carl Wunsch, "Henry Stommel," Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 72 (1997): 350-51, on 350. Naomi Oreskes's comprehensive entry for Stommel in the New Dictionary of Scientific Biography does not mention Stommel's graphical work at all
18. see Oreskes, s.v. "Stommel, Henry Melson," New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 6 (Detroit, MI: Charles Scribners and Sons, 2007), 527-32
19. Kaiser, Drawing Theories (ref. 6), 356
20. Tiffany C. Vance, "If You Build It, Will They Come? Evolution Towards the Application of Multi-Dimensional GIS to Fisheries Oceanography" (PhD dissertation, Oregon State University, 2008), 103
21. Bruno Latour, "Visualization and Cognition: Drawing Things Together," Knowledge and Society 6 (1986): 1-40, on 19
22. This point is indirectly raised in Robert E. Kohler, "Plants and Pigeonholes: Classification as a Practice in American Ecology," Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 38, no. 1 (2008): 77-108, esp. 80
23. and George Malanson, "Considering Complexity," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 89 (1999): 746-53
24. Henry Stommel, "The Sea of the Beholder" (drafted in 1984)
25. published in Nelson G. Hogg and Rui Xin Huang, Collected Works of Henry M. Stommel (Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society, 1995), I-16
26. See also Wunsch, "Henry Stommel" (ref. 7)
27. and Oreskes, "Stommel" (ref. 7)
28. Stommel, "Sea of the Beholder" (ref. 13), I-17
29. On Ewing, see "William Maurice Ewing," Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 51 (1980): 118-93
30. on Rossby, and on the disciplines of meteorology and fluid dynamics in this period, see Robert Marc Friedman, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989)
31. and Kristine C. Harper, Weather by the Numbers: The Genesis of Modern Meteorology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008)
32. see also Raymond B. Montgomery, "Notes Related to Stommel's Early Years in Woods Hole," n.d. [1979], RBM, Box 16
33. Their paper (L. F. Richardson and H. M. Stommel, "Note on the Eddy Diffusion in the Sea," Journal of Meteorology 5, no. 5 (1948): 238-40) starts with one of the more intriguing first lines ever seen in a scientific journal article: "We have observed the relative motion of two floating pieces of parsnip, and have repeated the observation for many such pairs at different initial separations." (238)
34. Arnold Arons, "The Scientific Work of Henry Stommel," in Evolution of Physical Oceanography: Scientific Surveys in Honor of Henry Stommel, ed. Bruce Alfred Warren and Carl Wunsch (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981), xvi
35. and Russ E. Davis, "Contributions to Global Ocean Circulation," in Physical Oceanography: Developments Since 1950, ed. Markus Jachum and Raghu Murtugudde (New York: Springer, 2006), 45-66, on 46-47
36. W. M. Ewing, handwritten notes on presentation by William S. Von Arx, WHOI, "On the Promise and Limitations of Ocean Model Experiments," undated [circa 1955], W. Maurice Ewing papers, Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin, Box 57
37. Henry Stommel, The Gulf Stream: A Physical and Dynamical Description (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 178
38. See Ray Montgomery to Stommel, 23 Mar 1950, RBM, Box 263; Munk to Stommel, 18 Apr 1950, WHM, Box 19; and Iselin to Stommel, 30 Apr 1950, HMS, Box 2, Folder 3. Other leading earth scientists in Stommel's generation lacking a PhD included Sydney Paige, John Ewing, Lloyd V. Berkner, and Vincent Schaffer; on Berkner and Schaffer respectively see Allan A. Needell, Science, the Cold War, and the American State: Lloyd V. Berkner and the Balance of Professional Ideals (London: Harwood Academic Press, 2000)
39. and Kristine C. Harper, "Climate Control: U.S. Weather Modification in the Cold War and Beyond," Endeavour 32, no. 1 (2008): 20-26
40. Henry Stommel, "Why Do Our Ideas about the Ocean Circulation Have Such a Peculiarly Dream-Like Quality?" (written in 1954)
41. reprinted in Hogg and Huang, The Collected Works of Henry M. Stommel (ref. 13), I-124, I-135
42. Arons, "Scientific Work" (ref. 17), xvi
43. Stommel, "What Do We Know about the Deep Ocean Circulation?" text for talk at Deep-Sea Research Symposium, undated [circa 1955], W. Maurice Ewing papers, Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin, Box 57
44. Henry Stommel, "Varieties of Oceanographic Experience," Science 139, no. 3555 (1963): 572-76
45. Gravity waves in the earth and atmospheric sciences are distinct from gravitational waves or gravitational radiation, which are perturbations in space-time as treated in general relativity; on attempts to detect the latter see Harry Collins, Gravity's Shadow: The Search for Gravitational Waves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004)
46. Yngve H. Olsen, "Note to Subscribers, Authors and Associate Editors," Journal of Marine Research 19, no. 1 (1960): 1-5
47. On the creation of the Heezen-Tharp map series, see Ronald E. Doel, Tanya J. Levin, and Mason K. Marker, "Extending Modern Cartography to the Ocean Depths: Military Patronage, Cold War Priorities, and the Heezen-Tharp Mapping Project, 1952-1959," Journal of Historical Geography 33, no. 5 (2006): 605-26. Stommel almost certainly saw the tsunami article diagrams soon after their publication, as one of his own research papers immediately followed it in the same journal volume
48. see Gaylord R. Miller, Walter H. Munk, and Frank E. Snodgrass, "Long-Period Waves over California's Continental Borderland. Part II. Tsunamis," Journal of Marine Research 20, no. 1 (1962): 31-41
49. Henry Stommel, "Some Thoughts about Planning the Kuroshio Survey," Proceedings of Symposium on the Kuroshio, Tokyo, October 29, 1963, Oceanographical Society of Japan and UNESCO (1965), 22-33, on 30
50. Soviet plan quoted in Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciplines of Marine Science (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), 171
51. On the IOC, see Helen Rozwadowski, The Sea Knows No Boundaries: A Century of Marine Science Under ICES (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 131
52. Stommel's claims notwithstanding, repeated global surveys of ocean properties to consider the role of the oceans in climate became the centerpiece of the World Ocean Climate Experiment (WOCE) conducted from 1990-98 as well as the Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS), beginning in the 1970s; on GEOSECS, see Deborah Day, "Resources for the Study of Oceanography at the Archives of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography," in Oceanographic History: The Pacific and Beyond, ed. Keith Rodney Benson and Philip F. Rehbock (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 526-31
53. Stommel, "Varieties" (ref. 28), 572, 574, 575
54. M. King Hubbert, "Are We Retrogressing in Science?" Science 139, no. 3558 (1963): 884-90
55. On Abelson, see David Dickson, The New Politics of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 29
56. and Daniel S. Greenberg, The Politics of Pure Science, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 35
57. George Veronis, "A Theoretical Model of Henry Stommel," in Warren and Wunsch, Evolution (ref. 17), xx-xxi
58. Stommel, Gulf Stream (ref. 19)
59. Stommel to W. Munk, 14 Jan 1954, WHM, Box 19; Stommel, Letters from Oceanographers Series (1954), p. 149, Dale Leipper Papers, SIO Archives, Folder 8. Studies of science in the field remain infrequent, despite their importance; for entries to the literature see Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler, Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd ser., 11 (1996)
60. and Sverker Sörlin, "Science, Empire, and Enlightenment: Geographies of Northern Field Science," European Review of History 13, no. 3 (2006): 455-72
61. G. E. R. Deacon, "Henry Stommel," in Warren and Wunsch, Evolution (ref. 17), xxv
62. Malcolm Pivar, Edward Fredkin, and Henry Stommel, "Computer-Compiled Oceanographic Atlas: An Experiment in Man-Machine Interaction," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 50, no. 2 (1963): 396-98
63. on the scientific and political contexts of the IGY, see Needell, Science (ref. 22)
64. Columbus Iselin, untitled notes on WHOI in the war years, circa 1950, Columbus Iselin papers, WHOI Archive, Box 31, Folder Draft (Folder B) WHOI History During the War Years; and Eric L. Mills, Biological Oceanography: An Early History, 1870-1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), 285
65. Gary Weir, An Ocean in Common: American Naval Officers, Scientists, and the Ocean Environment (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001), 336; see also 335 and 390
66. see also Hamblin, Oceanographers (ref. 33), 150-51
67. and Richard C. Vetter, "Growth and Support of Oceanography in the United States, 1958-1968," report of the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, 1970
68. Stommel, introduction to "Dream-Like" (ref. 23)
69. On changing perceptions of the oceans as a food source see Rozwadowski, Sea Knows (ref. 33)
70. see also Philip E. Steinberg, The Social Construction of the Ocean (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). Members of other U.S. science disciplines at this time similarly worried about federal patronage robbing them of autonomy
71. see David H. DeVorkin, "Who Speaks for Astronomy? How Astronomers Responded to Government Funding after World War II," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 31, no. 1 (1999): 55-92
72. Stommel, "A Zero Order Look at Physical Oceanographic Measurement for the Next Seven Years," draft msc, 18 Jul 1965, HMS, Box 19
73. on Stommel's internal conflicts over the management of research in oceanography, see Carl Wunsch, "Henry Melson Stommel, 27 September 1920-17 January 1992," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 43 (1997): 492-502, on 493
74. Stommel, "Some Thoughts," (ref. 32), 22-33. One reason that Stommel may not have made more use of the diagram is that his interest in any particular technique or experiment tended to be short-lived. As he put it in his autobiography: "The truth is that I usually get tired and mired down in any one line of research after it has produced a few new results. Others with more highly developed techniques generally outrun me, so I leave the decorations of an idea to them."
75. Stommel, "Sea of the Beholder," in Hogg and Huang, Collected Works (ref. 13), I-9
76. Physical oceanographers may also have remained aloof from the Stommel Diagram by seeing Soviet mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov's mathematically rigorous work on turbulent cascades - a central issue in scaling - as more relevant and useful. See his classic 1941 paper, A. N. Kolmogorov, "Local Structure of Turbulence in an Incompressible Fluid for Very Large Reynolds Numbers," Comptes rendus (Doklady) de l'Academie des Sciences de l'U.R.S.S. 31 (1941): 301-05, well known to North American physical scientists by the 1950s
77. See also J. C. R. Hunt, O. M. Phillips, and D. Williams, eds., Turbulence and Stochastic Processes: Kolmogorov's Ideas 50 Years On, Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, A 434 (1991): 1-240; and David Schneider to Tiffany C. Vance, personal communication, 2 Jan 2007
78. D. James Baker, "Ocean Instruments and Experimental Design," in Warren and Wunsch, ed., Evolution (ref. 17), 396-433
79. Haury et al., "Patterns and Processes" (ref. 2)
80. See esp. Alex Herman and Trevor Platt, "Meso-Scale Spatial Distribution of Plankton: Co-Evolution of Concepts and Instrumentation," in Oceanography: The Past, ed. Mary Sears and Daniel Merriman (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1980), 204-25, on 204
81. see also Schneider, "Rise of the Concept" (ref. 2), 547
82. Malanson, "Considering Complexity" (ref. 12), 748
83. Levin, "Problem of Pattern" (ref. 2), 1943
84. For biogeography and related fields in geography, see Hazel R. Delcourt, Paul A. Delcourt, and Thompson Webb III, "Dynamic Plant Ecology: The Spectrum of Vegetation Change in Space and Time," Quaternary Science Reviews 1 (1983): 153-75
85. The first textbook use of the Stommel Diagram of which we are aware occurs in M. J. Kaiser, M. J. Attrill, S. Jennings, D. N. Thomas, D. Barnes, A. Brierley, N. Polunin, D. Raffaelli, and P. J. le B. Williams, Marine Ecology Processes, Systems and Impacts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 221. This version of the diagram also employed color shadings to superimpose a two-dimensional variant of the Stommel Diagram within the original three-dimensional graphic published by John Steele in 1978, discussed later in this article
86. Alan R. Johnson, "Spatiotemporal Hierarchies in Ecological Theory and Modeling," in GIS and Environmental Modeling: Progress and Research Issues, ed. Michael F. Goodchild (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 451-56, on 452
87. and International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Report on the Working Group on Recruitment Processes (Barcelona: ICES CM 2005/C12, 2005)
88. John Steele, "Some Comments on Plankton Patches," in Steele, Spatial Pattern (ref. 2), 1-20, on 2-3
89. See esp. Schneider, "Rise of the Concept" (ref. 2), and David Schneider, communication with Tiffany C. Vance, 2 Jan 2007
90. D. M. Dauer and J. L. Simon, "Habitat Expansion among Polychaetous Annelids Repopulating a Defaunated Marine Habitat," Marine Biology 37 (1976): 169-77
91. J. H. Steele, "A Study of Production in the Gulf of Mexico," Journal of Marine Research 22, no. 3 (1964): 211-21
92. and L. Haury, "Small-Scale Pattern of California Current Zooplankton," Marine Biology 37 (1976): 137-57
93. For the Journal of Plankton Research
94. see D. H. Cushing, editorial, Journal of Plankton Research 1 (1979): 1
95. Eric L. Mills, Biological Oceanography (ref. 49), 307; John Dunlap to Tiffany C. Vance, personal communication, 2 Jul 2008; Drew Vastano to Tiffany C. Vance, personal communication, 3 Jul 2008
96. The division between physical and biological oceanography is explored in Warren S. Wooster, "Immiscible Investigators: Oceanographers, Meteorologists, and Fishery Scientists," BioScience 37, no. 10 (1987): 728-30
97. and Ronald Rainger, "Adaptation and the Importance of Local Culture: Creating a Research School at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography," Journal of the History of Biology 36, no. 3 (2003): 461-500
98. see also David Livingstone, Putting Science in its Place: Geographies of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003)
99. Extensive analysis of Riley's work appears in Mills, Biological Oceanography (ref. 49)
100. quoted on 289, 309. This monograph, G. A. Riley, H. M. Stommel, and D. Bumpus, "Quantitative Ecology of the Plankton of the Western North Atlantic," Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection 12, no. 3 (1949): 1-169, came to the attention of Walter Munk but few other physical oceanographers; see Munk to George F. Carrier, 14 Jan 1960, Box 19, WHM
101. On the significance of Oceans, see Robert Marc Friedman, The Expeditions of Harald Ulrik Sverdrup: Contexts for Shaping an Ocean Science (San Diego, CA: SIO, University of California, 1994)
102. and Deborah Day, A History of "The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology," (2003)
103. available online at http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1190&context=sio/arch (last accessed on 8 Nov 2009)
104. and Eric Mills, editorial, "History of Oceanography and History of Science," History of Oceanography Newsletter 8 (1996): 1-2
105. "Oral History of John A. McGowan," interview by Laura Harkewicz, recorded 17 Jan 2006, SIO Archives, 20
106. Francis T. Haxo, Michael M. Mullin, and Fred B. Phleger, "Edward William Fager, Marine Biology: San Diego," In Memoriam, September 1978 (Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, Academic Senate), 63-65
107. Herman and Platt, "Meso-Scale" (ref. 61), 204 (emphasis added)
108. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Report of the Working Group on Recruitment Processes (ref. 66), 6
109. A more comprehensive discussion of the diffusion of the Stommel Diagram is found in Vance, "If You Build It" (ref. 9)
110. Indeed, the chief of the Fisheries Biology branch of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lionel A. Walford, had declared that careful observations of particular characteristics of the marine environment (as Riley, Stommel, and Bumpus had urged in their 1949 paper) had predictive value that could be employed to increase fish harvests; see Lionel A. Walford, Living Resources of the Sea: Opportunities for Research and Expansion (New York: Ronald Press, 1958), 84, 87
111. see also Sharon Kingsland, The Evolution of American Ecology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005)
112. Steele, "Some Varieties of Oceanographic Experience," in Evolution (ref. 17), 376-83, on 376. Terrestrial ecologists such as Paul Ehrlich were slower in appreciating the environmental diversity of the oceans
113. see G. Carleton Ray, "Man and the Sea - the Ecological Challenge," American Zoologist 25 (1985): 451-68, on 454. The closely linked relationship between observational methods and theoretical assumptions in biological oceanography is reminiscent of a key earth sciences issue, when U.S. geophysicists (favoring the Pratt model of isostatic compensation in the mid-twentieth century) strongly objected to the possibility of continental drift
114. see Naomi Oreskes, The Rejection of Continental Drift (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)
115. Steele, "Comments" (ref. 67), 5
116. Bruno Battaglia and John H. Steele, "Foreword" in Steele, Spatial Pattern (ref. 2), v-vi
117. Peter H. Wiebe and Mark C. Benfield, "From the Hensen Net Toward Four-Dimensional Biological Oceanography," Progress in Oceanography 56 (2003): 7-136, on 7
118. K. M. Brander, R. R. Dickson, and M. Edwards, "Use of Continuous Plankton Recorder Information in Support of Marine Management: Applications in Fisheries, Environmental Protection, and in the Study of Ecosystem Response to Environmental Change," Progress in Oceanography 58 (2003): 175-91, on 175
119. P. C. Reid, J. M. Colebrook, J. B. L. Matthews, and J. Aitken, "The Continuous Plankton Recorder: Concepts and History, From Plankton Indicator to Undulating Recorders," Progress in Oceanography 58 (2003): 117-73, on 117
120. Wiebe and Benfield, "Hensen Net" (ref. 85), 7
121. Reid, Colebrook, Matthews, and Aitken, "Continuous Plankton" (ref. 86), 117
122. Steele, Spatial Pattern (ref. 2)
123. J. W. Chanslor, "Treasure from the Sea," in Science and the Sea (Washington, DC: U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1967), 9-16; for perspectives on the Kennedy Administration's larger interests in studying natural resources in all domains
124. see Lynton Caldwell's essay on the origins of the National Environmental Policy Act, "Implementing NEPA: A Non-Technical Political Task," in Environmental Policy and NEPA: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Ray Clark and Larry Canter (London: CRC Press, 1997), 25-50
125. F. S. Russell, "Marine Biology and Human Affairs," Advances in Marine Biology 15 (1978): 233-48, on 244
126. Timothy Parsons and Humitake Seki, "A Historical Perspective of Biological Studies in the Ocean," Aquatic Living Resources 8 (1995): 113-22, on 117
127. and Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear Age (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008)
128. Mary Carmel Finley, "The Tragedy of Enclosure: Fish, Fisheries Science, and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1920-1960" (PhD dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 2007), 2
129. William J. Merrell, Mary Hope Katsouros, and Jacqueline Bienskiu, "The Stratton Commission: The Model for a Sea Change in National Marine Policy," Oceanography 14, no. 2 (2001): 11-16
130. and Edward Wenk, Jr., The Politics of the Ocean (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972)
131. Finley, "Tragedy of Enclosure" (ref. 92), 565. By 1976 the U.S. Magnuson Fishery and Conservation Act established a 200-mile Fishery Conservation Zone, expanded to an Exclusive Economic Zone in 1983
132. see Edward R. Wenk, Jr., "Global Principles for National Marine Policies: A Challenge for the Future," in Comparative Marine Policy: Perspectives from Europe, Scandinavia, Canada, and the United States, Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island (New York: Praeger, 1981): 3-16
133. Eugene Odum, "The Emergence of Ecology as a New Integrative Discipline," Science 195, no. 4284 (1977): 1289-93. Odum commented here that the "somewhat disappointing performance" of this undertaking "can, in hindsight, perhaps, be attributed to the fact that unifying theories or concepts were not set up for testing on the outset," p. 1290
134. for an overview see Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 173-96
135. Toby A. Appel, Shaping Biology: The National Science Foundation and American Biological Research, 1945-1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 226-32
136. Kingsland, Evolution (ref. 80), 160
137. Tulley A. Long, "The Forest and the Mainframe: The Dynamics of Modeling and Field Study in the Coniferous Forest Biome, 1969-1980" (masters thesis, Oregon State University, 2005)
138. Nicholas Polunin, "Some Warnings," Biological Conservation 1, no. 1 (1968): 5
139. Carleton Ray, "Ecology, Law, and the 'Marine Revolution,'" Biological Conservation 3 (1970): 8-17. Later researchers accepted a similar periodization: "The history of biological studies of the ocean can be divided into two periods: the first was characterized by many expeditions of discovery; the second by attempts to solve practical problems. Progress in biological studies has been achieved through developments in methodology, physiological investigations, ecosystem modeling, pollution monitoring, aquaculture and global networking of scientific effort,"
140. Parsons and Seki, "Historical Perspective" (ref. 91), 120
141. See also John H. Steele, "Oceanography as a Career," Oceanography 10, no. 3 (1997): 145
142. see also Tim Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Not all fish stocks crashed in this period, as certain cod family catch rates briefly spiked in the early 1960s, complicating assessments
143. Quoted in Odum, "Emergence" (ref. 96), 1289
144. Another influential work from this time is P. R. Ehrlich, A. H. Ehrlich, and J. P. Holdren, Ecoscience: Population, Resources, Environment (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1977)
145. Ray, "Man and the Sea" (ref. 81), 463
146. H. Sverdrup, "On Conditions for the Vernal Blooming of Phytoplankton," Journal du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 18 (1953): 287-95
147. and D. A. Siegel, S. C. Doney, and J. A. Yoder, "The North Atlantic Spring Phytoplankton Bloom and Sverdrup's Critical Depth Hypothesis," Science 296 (2002): 730-33
148. Johnson, "Spatiotemporal Hierarchies" (ref. 65), 451
149. Wooster, "Immiscible Investigators" (ref. 71), 728-29
150. While perhaps tempting to see this as an instance of a trading zone outside physics, related to those which Peter Galison addressed in Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), the very limited contacts between members of these research communities, and the long time lag between initial developments and subsequent applications, suggests a different dynamic here
151. Ronald Rainger, "Patronage and Science: Roger Revelle, the U.S. Navy, and Oceanography at the Scripps Institution," Earth Sciences History 19, no. 1 (2000): 58-89
152. Odum, "Emergence of Ecology" (ref. 96), 1289. These criticisms echoed earlier debates over the proper scope of the proposed U.S. National Science Foundation, which pitted adherence to basic research against applied aims
153. see particularly Daniel J. Kevles, "The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942-1945: A Political Interpretation of Science - The Endless Frontier," Isis 68 (1977): 5-26
154. and Jessica Wang, "Liberals, the Progressive Left, and the Political Economy of Postwar American Science: The National Science Foundation Debate Revisited," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 26, no. 1 (1995): 139-66
155. Ray, "Ecology" (ref. 99), 466
156. on recent developments see for instance Jane Lubchenco, "Entering the Century of the Environment: A New Social Contract for Science," Science 279 (1998): 491-97. Ray did not mention in his writing Soviet efforts to create a unified discipline of oceanology, an important instance of national styles in science
157. Bruno Latour, "Drawing Things Together," in Representation in Scientific Activity, ed. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1990): 19-61
158. and Susan Leigh Starr, "The Politics of Formal Representations: Wizards, Gurus, and Organizational Complexity," in Ecologies of Knowledge: Work and Politics in Science and Technology, ed. Susan Leigh Starr (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995): 88-118, on 91-92
159. K. Knorr-Cetina, Epismetic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999)
160. On this issue see A. Hunter Dupree, "Commentary: The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory-from Washington to Cambridge," Journal for the History of Astronomy 21, no. 1 (1990): 107-10
161. Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2004)
162. and Ronald E. Doel, "Quelle place pour les sciences de l'environnement physique dans l'histoire de l'environnement?" Revue d'histoire modern et contemporaine 56, no. 4 (2009), forthcoming
163. Herschel quoted in Hankins, "Large and Graceful" (ref. 4), 605; see also 625