Longevity, aging, and caloric restriction: Clive Maine McCay and the construction of a multidisciplinary research program

Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 79-124

  Park, Hyung Wook ^a  

^a DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aging; Caloric restriction; Clive Maine McCay; Gerontology; Longevity; Multidisciplinary research; Nutrition

Indexed keywords

AGED; AGING; AGRICULTURE; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; CALORIC RESTRICTION; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; GERIATRICS; HISTORY; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; LONGEVITY; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PERSONNEL; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESEARCH; REVIEW;

AGED; AGING; AGRICULTURE; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; CALORIC RESTRICTION; GERIATRICS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LONGEVITY; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCES; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESEARCH; RESEARCH PERSONNEL;

EID: 77950744165     PISSN: 19391811     EISSN: 1939182X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/hsns.2010.40.1.79     Document Type: Review

References (192)

1. In addition to the remarks of the scientists cited below, British scientist Peter Medawar mentioned McCay's research in a positive way. See Peter Medawar, "Problems of Ageing. Ed. E. V. Cowdry. 2nd.," undated, C. 26, the Peter Brian Medawar Papers, Wellcome Library, London, England
2. Also see an extensive biography of McCay written by his wife, Jeanette B. McCay, Clive McCay, Nutrition Pioneer: Biographical Memoirs by His Wife (Charlotte Harbor, FL: Tabby House, 1994)
3. Alex Comfort, The Biology of Senescence (New York: Rinehart, 1956), 148
4. Edward J. Masoro, Caloric Restriction: A Key to Understanding and Modulating Aging (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2002), 2-3
5. Patricia B. Swan, "To Live Longer, Eat Less! (McCay, 1934-1939)," JN 127 (1997): 1039S-1941S
6. J. K. Loosli, "Clive Maine McCay (1898-1967)-A Biographical Sketch," JN 103 (1973): 3-10
7. "Clive M. McCay," in Profiles in Gerontology: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. W. Andrew Achenbaum and Daniel M. Albert (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1995), 232
8. Thomas B. Osborne, Lafayette B. Mendel, and Edna L. Ferry, "The Effect of Retardation of Growth upon the Breeding Period and Duration of Life of Rats," Science 45 (1917): 294-95
9. John H. Northrop, "The Effect of Prolongation of the Period of Growth on the Total Duration of Life," JBC 32 (1917): 123-26, on 126
10. W. Andrew Achenbaum, Crossing Frontiers: Gerontology Emerges as a Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 52-84
11. Stephen Katz, Disciplining Old Age: The Formation of Gerontological Knowledge (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1996)
12. Hyung Wook Park, "Edmund Vincent Cowdry and the Making of Gerontology as a Multidisciplinary Scientific Field in the United States," JHB 41, no. 3 (2008): 529-72
13. For example, see Peter L. Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 781-844
14. Susan Leigh Starr and James R. Griesemer, "Institutional Ecology, 'Translations,' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39," Social Studies of Science 19, no. 3 (1989): 387-420
15. Ilana Löwy, "The Strength of Loose Concepts - Boundary Concepts, Federative Experimental Strategies, and Disciplinary Growth: The Case of Immunology," History of Science 30, no. 4 (1992): 371-96
16. Ilana Löwy, Between Bench and Bedside: Science, Healing, and Interleukin-2 in a Cancer Ward (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 247-53
17. Katz, Disciplining Old Age (ref. 8), 110-12. Katz's statement regarding gerontology is similar to what Julie Thompson Klein has mentioned on the nature of multidisciplinarity
18. See Julie Thompson Klein, Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 55-73
19. David A. Peterson, Career Paths in the Field of Aging (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987)
20. R. D. Bramwell, "Gerontology as a Discipline," Educational Gerontology 11 (1985): 201-10
21. Ira S. Hirschfield and David A. Peterson, "The Professionalization of Gerontology," The Gerontologist 22 (1982): 215-20
22. Park, "Edmund Vincent Cowdry" (ref. 8)
23. For example, see Thomas B. Osborne and Lafayette B. Mendel, "Amino-Acids in Nutrition and Growth," JBC 17 (1914): 325-49
24. Osborne, Mendel, and Ferry, "Effect of Retardation" (ref. 7)
25. Northrop, "Effect of Prolongation" (ref. 7)
26. For other related studies with different approaches and results, see James Rollin Slonaker, The Effect of a Strictly Vegetable Diet on the Spontaneous Activity, the Rate of Growth, and the Longevity of the Albino Rat (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1912)
27. T. Brailsford Robertson and L. A. Ray, "Experimental Studies on Growth. XV: On the Growth of Relatively Long Lived Compared with that of Relatively Short Lived Animals," JBC 42 (1920): 71-107
28. Loosli, "Clive Maine McCay" (ref. 5), 4
29. C. M. McCay, "Goals in Nutrition," TAFS 57 (1927): 261-65
30. C. M. McCay, F. C. Bing, and W. S. Dilley, "The Effect of Variations in Vitamins, Protein, Fat and Mineral Matter in the Diet upon the Growth and Mortality of Eastern Brook Trout," TAFS 57 (1927): 240-49
31. F. C. Bing, "A Progress Report upon Feeding Experiments with Brook Trout Fingerlings at the Connecticut State Fish Hatchery, Burlington, Conn.," TAFS 57 (1927): 266-80
32. C. M. McCay and W. E. Dilley, "Factor H in the Nutrition of Trout," TAFS 57 (1927): 250-59
33. McCay, "Goals in Nutrition" (ref. 19), 263
34. McCay, Bing, and Dilley, "Effect of Variations" (ref. 19), 241
35. John W. Titcomb, Eben W. Cobb, Mary F. Crowell, and C. M. McCay, "The Nutritional Requirements and Growth Rates of Brook Trout," TAFS 58 (1928): 205-31, on 217-18
36. Margaret A. Lowe, "From Robust Appetites to Calorie Counting: The Emergence of Dieting among Smith College Students in the 1920s," Journal of Women's History 7, no. 4 (1995): 37-61
37. Harvey Levenstein, Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 166
38. C. M. McCay, F. C. Bing, and W. E. Dilley, "Factor H in the Nutrition of Trout," Science 67 (1928): 249-50
39. C. M. McCay, W. E. Dilley, and M. F. Crowell, "Growth Rates of Brook Trout Reared upon Purified Rations, upon Dry Skim Milk Diets, and upon Feed Combinations of Cereal Grains," JN 1 (1929): 233-46, on 245
40. Daphne A. Roe, "Leonard Amby Maynard," Biographical Memoir of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 3 (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1993), 299, 304
41. Cornell University Register for 1927-1928 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1928), 79-80
42. For example, see C. M. McCay, John. W. Titcomb, Eben W. Cobb, M. F. Crowell, and A. Tunison, "The Nutritional Requirements of Trout," TAFS 60 (1930): 127-39
43. See Jeanette McCay, Clive McCay (ref. 2), 279-304
44. L. A. Maynard and C. M. McCay, "The Influence of a Low-Fat Diet upon Fat Metabolism during Lactation," JN 2 (1929): 67-81
45. C. M. McCay and L. A. Maynard, "The Interrelationship between the Dietary Fat and the Phosphorus Distribution in the Blood of Lactating Cows," JBC 92 (1931): 273-80
46. L. L. Madsen, C. M. McCay, and L. A. Maynard, "Synthetic Diets for Herbivora, with Special Reference to the Toxicity of Cod-Liver Oil," Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station Memoir (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1935)
47. Clive M. McCay, "Is Longevity Compatible with Optimum Growth?" Science 77 (1933): 410-11, on 410
48. Clive M. McCay, "Science Ibid., 411
49. C. M. McCay and Mary F. Crowell, "Prolonging the Life Span," Scientific Monthly 39 (1934): 405-14
50. Thomas B. Osborne and Lafayette B. Mendel, "The Resumption of Growth after Long Continued Failure to Grow," JBC 23 (1915): 439-54, on 442
51. C. M. McCay, Mary F. Crowell, and L. A. Maynard, "The Effect of Retarded Growth upon the Length of Life Span and upon the Ultimate Body Size," JN 10 (1935): 63-79, on 65
52. Thomas B. Osborne and Lafayette B. Mendel, "The Suppression of Growth and the Capacity to Grow," JBC 18 (1914): 95-103, on 103
53. McCay and Crowell, "Prolonging the Life Span" (ref. 34), 414
54. See, for example, Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar, eds., Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988)
55. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, "Visual Representation and Post-Constructivist History of Science," HSPS 28, no. 1 (1997): 139-71
56. Timothy Lenoir, ed., Inscribing Science: Scientific Texts and the Materiality of Communication (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1998)
57. Luc Pauwels, ed., Visual Cultures of Science: Rethinking Representational Practices in Knowledge Building and Science Communication (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Press, 2006)
58. E. V. McCollum, The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition: The Use of Food for the Preservation of Vitality and Health (New York: MacMillan, 1919), esp. fig. 5
59. Osborne and Mendel, "Resumption of Growth" (ref. 36), 447
60. McCay, Crowell, and Maynard, "Effect of Retarded Growth" (ref. 36), 67-69. Indeed, the size of animals was very important for most commercial breeders
61. Also see "Conference on Nutritional Requirements for the Ageing Population," 1-2 Nov 1941, GS, Box 1, Folder Nutritional Requirements Conference 1941, p. 7
62. C. M. McCay, "Some Old Beliefs about Long Life," 26 May 1934, Agricultural College Hour Radio Talk Manuscript, NWS, Box 6, Folder McCay, Clive, p. 8
63. C. M. McCay, "Nutrition, Ageing, and Longevity," Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 10 (1942): 1-10, on 7, 9
64. Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994)
65. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: Standardizing Animals for American Biomedical Research, 1900-1955 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004)
66. Lee B. Kass, Christophe Bonneuil, and Edward H. Coe, Jr., "Cornfests, Cornfabs, and Cooperation: The Origins and Beginnings of the Maize Genetics Cooperation News Letter," Genetics 169 (2005): 1787-97
67. Rachel Allyson Ankeny, "Wormy Logic: Model Organisms as Case-Based Reasoning," in Science without Laws: Model Systems, Cases, Exemplary Narratives, ed. Angela N. H. Creager, Elizabeth Lunbeck, and M. Norton Wise (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 46-58
68. Angela N. H. Creager, The Life of a Virus: Tobacco Mosaic Virus as an Experimental Model, 1930-1965 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001)
69. See J. Russell Lindsey and Henry J. Baker, "Historical Foundations," in The Laboratory Rat, 2nd ed., ed. Mark A. Suckow, Steven H. Weisbroth, and Craig L. Franklin (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2006), 15-20
70. Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," JHB 26, no. 2 (1993): 329-49, on 332
71. Lindsey and Baker, "Historical Foundations" (ref. 50), 10
72. The authors of an article published in 1957 still say that they used non-inbred Wistar rats. See Arthur Everitt and Carolyn Webb, "The Relation between Body Weight Changes and Life Duration in Male Rats," JG 12 (1957): 128-35, on 128
73. Fisher's participation in national health movements is briefly described in Victoria Harden, Inventing the NIH: Federal Biomedical Research Policy, 1887-1937 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 57, 119
74. McCay, "Nutrition" (ref. 47), 6
75. See Kohler, Lords of the Fly (ref. 49), 71-79
76. Robert Kohler, Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002)
77. See Leonard Hayflick, How and Why We Age (New York: Ballantine, 1994), 277-95
78. Steven N. Austad, "Does Caloric Restriction in the Laboratory Simply Prevent Overfeeding and Return House Mice to Their Natural Level of Food Intake?" Science of Aging Knowledge Environment 2001, no. 6 (2001): pe3
79. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 268-73, 303-29
80. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Ibid., 279-81
81. Other scholars have offered different interpretations. Daniel Kevles has argued that biological science received more attention since it could be an alternative to the physical sciences, which were thought to be the basis of new technology that was considered responsible for the economic crisis, at least partially. On the other hand, Lily Kay has argued that biological science was expected to reveal the basis of human behavior and might contribute to the proper solution of contemporary social problems concerning labor, heredity, and immigration. See Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), 247-51
82. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 22-57
83. Also see A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 344-68
84. For example, the discovery of vitamin A, which was made by biochemists in agricultural institutions, was important for medicine as well, and genetic research in agricultural institutions was related to nutrition. See Barbara Kimmelman, "Mr. Blakeslee Builds His Dream House: Agricultural Institutions, Genetics, and Careers, 1900-1915," JHB 39, no. 2 (2006): 241-80, on 253-70
85. Charles E. Rosenberg, No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), esp. 153-72, 200-24
86. Philip J. Pauly, Biologists and the Promise of American Life: From Meriwether Lewis to Alfred Kinsey (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 227-38
87. "Committee Paper No. I," RF, Series 915, Record Group 3.1, Box 2, Folder 9, p. 3
88. LeRoy Barnes and Gordon Ellis, "Studies of the Skeletons of Animals: A Progress Report," 1 May 1940, RF, Series 200D, Record Group 1.1, Box 137, Folder 1689
89. C. M. McCay, "Chemical Aspects of Ageing," in Problems of Ageing: Biological and Medical Aspects, ed. E. V. Cowdry (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1939), 574
90. See also C. M. McCay, "The Conservative Attack upon Problems of Aging," Geriatrics 13 (1958): 709-17, on 712
91. Frank Pope, Wanda Lunsford, and C. M. McCay, "Experimental Prolongation of the Life Span," Journal of Chronic Disease 4 (1956): 153-58, on 156
92. C. M. McCay, G. H. Ellis, LeRoy L. Barnes, C. A. H. Smith, and Gladys Sperling, "Chemical and Pathological Changes in Aging and After Retarded Growth," JN 18 (1939): 15-25
93. For McCay's public presentation, see "Notes on A. M. A. Meetings, June 6-12, 1942," GS, Box 1, Folder Notes on AMA meeting 1942
94. For the media exposure, see "Longer Life-Span in Biologists' Aim," New York Times, 31 Mar 1938
95. J. D. Ratcliff, "Let's Live a Little Longer," Collier's, 13 Mar 1943
96. Edwin Teale, "Stay Hungry and Live Longer," Popular Science, Oct 1941
97. James Rorty, "The Thin Rats Bury the Fat Rats," Harper's Magazine, May 1949
98. Frank Blair Hanson Diary, 21 Oct 1940, RF, Record Group 12.1; C. A. H. Smith, R. F. Light, and C. M. McCay, "Advanced Age in Relation to Dental Caries in White Rats," Journal of the American Dental Association 26 (1939): 1700-03
99. C. A. H. Smith and C. M. McCay, "Advanced Age in Relation to Dental Caries in White Rats. II," Journal of the American Dental Association 34 (1947): 340-44
100. O. H. Lowry, C. M. McCay, A. B. Hastings, and A. N. Brown, "Histochemical Changes Associated with Aging. III. The Effects of Retardation of Growth on Skeletal Muscle," JBC 143 (1942): 281-84
101. John A. Saxton, "Nutrition and Growth and Their Influence on Longevity in Rats," in Biological Symposia, vol. 11, ed. Jaques Cattell (Lancaster, PA: Jaques Cattell, 1945), 177-96
102. Rader, Making Mice (ref. 49)
103. Ankeny, "Wormy Logic" (ref. 49)
104. Kass, Bonneuil, and Coe, "Cornfests, Cornfabs, and Cooperation" (ref. 49)
105. Creager, Life of a Virus (ref. 49)
106. W. H. Riesen, E. J. Herbst, Catherine Walliker, and C. A. Elvehjem, "The Effect of Restricted Caloric Intake on the Longevity of Rats," American Journal of Physiology 148 (1947): 614-17, on 614
107. Anton J. Carlson and Frederick Hoelzel, "Apparent Prolongation of the Life Span of Rats by Intermittent Fasting," JN 31 (1946): 363-75, on 363
108. See also Anton J. Carlson and Frederick Hoelzel, "Growth and Longevity of Rats Fed Omnivorous and Vegetarian Diets," JN 34 (1947): 81-96
109. On early experiments on mice, see H. P. Rusch, B. E. Kline, and C. A. Baumann, "The Influence of Caloric Restriction and of Dietary Fat on Tumor Formation with Ultraviolet Radiation," Cancer Research 5 (1945): 431-35
110. For a research project using protozoa, see Maria Rudzinska, "Overfeeding and Life Span in Tokophrya Infusionum," JG 7 (1952): 544-48
111. Lester Ingle, Thelma R. Wood, and A. M. Banta, "A Study of Longevity, Growth, Reproduction and Heart Rate in Daphnia Longispina as Influenced by Limitations in Quantity of Food," Journal of Experimental Zoology 76 (1937): 325-52
112. H. Howard Dunham, "Abundant Feeding Followed by Restricted Feeding and Longevity in Daphnia," Physiological Zoology 11 (1938): 399-407
113. Lester Ingle, "Effects of Environmental Conditions on Longevity," Science 78 (1933): 511-13, on 511
114. Dunham, "Abundant Feeding" (ref. 102), 399
115. Maurice B. Visscher, Zelda B. Ball, Richard H. Barnes, and Ivar Sivertsen, "The Influence of Caloric Restriction upon the Incidence of Spontaneous Mammary Carcinoma in Mice," Surgery 11 (1942): 48-55
116. Martin Silberberg and Ruth Silberberg, "Effects of a High Fat Diet on the Joints of Aging Mice," Archives of Pathology 50 (1950): 828-46
117. C. E. Brown, L. L. Barnes, G. Sperling, and C. M. McCay, "Radioactive Calcium Osteosarcomas and Squamous Carcinomas: Influence of Dietary Restriction and Retarded Growth on Incidence," Cancer Research 20 (1960): 329-34, on 330
118. Gladys Sperling, J. K. Loosli, L. L. Barnes, and C. M. McCay, "The Effect of Coffee, Human Diets, and Inheritance upon the Life Span of Rats," JG 1 (1946): 426-32, on 431
119. C. M. McCay, "Gerontology and Nutrition," in Biological Foundations of Health Education: Proceedings of the Eastern States Health Education Conference, April 1-2, 1948 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1950), 84-85
120. McCay to E. V. Cowdry, 28 Oct 1946, EVC, Box 41, Folder 10. Later researchers did begin to study how the genes were involved in restricted diets' impact on the duration of life and senescence. For example, see David B. Allison, Richard A. Miller, Stephen N. Austad, Claude Bouchard, Rudolph Leibel, Simon Klebanov, Thomas Johnson, and David E. Harrison, "Genetic Variability in Responses to Caloric Restriction in Animals and in Regulation of Metabolism and Obesity in Humans," Journals of Gerontology: Series A 56A (2001): 55-65
121. W. Andrew Achenbaum, Social Security: Visions and Revisions, A Twentieth Century Fund Study (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 13-37
122. Carole Haber and Brian Gratton, Old Age and the Search for Security: An American Social History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 139-42; 181-85
123. John Macnicol, Age Discrimination: An Historical and Contemporary Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 211-23
124. William Graebner, A History of Retirement: The Meaning and Function of an American Institution, 1885-1978 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), 181-214
125. See, for example, Alexis Carrel, "Rejuvenation of Cultures of Tissues," Journal of the American Medical Association 57 (1911): 1611
126. C. M. Child, Senescence and Rejuvenescence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1915), 58-59, 186
127. Edwin G. Conklin, "The Size of Organisms and of Their Constituent Parts in Relation to Longevity, Senescence and Rejuvenescence," in The Harvey Lectures, series 8 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1913)
128. See Charles S. Minot, The Problem of Age, Growth, and Death: A Study of Cytomorphosis (New York: Putnam, 1908), 214-16
129. Alfred E. Cohn and Henry A. Murray, Jr., "Physiological Ontogeny I. The Present Status of the Problem," Quarterly Review of Biology 2 (1927): 469-93, on 482, 490
130. Raymond Pearl, The Biology of Death (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1922), 138-49, 225
131. Alexis Carrel, "Tissue Culture and Cell Physiology," Physiological Reviews 4 (1924): 1-20
132. E. V. Cowdry, "Ageing of Tissue Fluids," in Problems of Ageing: Biological and Medical Aspects, ed. E. V. Cowdry (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1939), 643, 685, 689
133. See also Nathan W. Shock, "Ageing of Homeostatic Mechanism," in Cowdry's Problems of Ageing, 3rd edn., ed. Albert I. Lansing (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1952), 421, 429-31, 436, 438
134. Among numerous books and papers, see Hippocrates, "Aphorisms," in The Genuine Works of Hippocrates, trans. Francis Adams (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1939), 294
135. Galen, "The Nature and Sources of Growth and of Disease," in A Translation of Galen's Hygiene, trans. Robert Montraville Green (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1951), 6-8
136. Roger Bacon, The Cure of Old Age and Preservation of Youth (London: Tho. Flesher and Edward Evets, 1683), 2
137. Francis Bacon, preface to History Natural and Experimental of Life and Death or the Prolongation of Life (London: William Lee and Humphrey Moseley, 1658)
138. Christopher William Hufeland, The Art of Prolonging Life (London: J. Bell, 1797), 35, 63-64
139. Marie François Xavier Bichat, Physiological Researches upon Life and Death, trans. Tobias Watkins (Philadelphia: Smith and Maxwell, 1809), 1-2
140. Homer Bostwick, An Inquiry into the Cause of Natural Death or Death from Old Age (New York: Stringer and Townsend, 1851), 7
141. Botanists were probably the first group of scientists who observed the contingency of aging. See Friedrich Hildegrand, "Die Lebensdauer und Vegetationsweise der Pflanzen, ihre Ursache and ihre Entwickelung," Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie 1 (1881): 51-135
142. William Crocker, "Ageing in Plants," in Cowdry, ed., Problems of Ageing (ref. 120), 27
143. The control of the protozoa's aging was also attempted and investigated. See Herbert Spencer Jennings, "Genetics of the Protozoa," Bibliographia Genetica 5 (1929): 213-26
144. "Senescence and Death in Protozoa and Invertebrates," in Cowdry, ed., Problems of Ageing (ref. 120), 40
145. For a good historical analysis of Alexis Carrel's argument for the contingency of senescence and immortality, see Hannah Landecker, Culturing Life: How Cells Became Technologies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 68-106
146. In addition to the primary sources cited in ref. 121, see Thomas R. Cole and Mary G. Winkler, "Aging in Western Medicine and Iconography: History and the Ages of Man," Medical Heritage 1 (1985): 336-47
147. M. D. Grmek, "On Ageing and Old Age: Basic Problems and Historic Aspects of Gerontology and Geriatrics," in Monographiae Biologicae, vol. 5, no. 2, ed. F. S. Bodenheimer and W. W. Weisbach (Den Haag, The Netherlands: Junk, 1958), 8-22
148. Richard L. Grant, "Concepts of Aging: An Historical Review," in Roots of Modern Gerontology and Geriatrics, ed. Gerald J. Gruman (New York: Arno, 1979), 443-78
149. On the discourse on biology and society among American biologists in the early twentieth century, see Sharon Kingsland, "Toward a Natural History of Human Psyche: Charles Manning Child, Charles Judson Herrick, and the Dynamic View of the Individual at the University of Chicago," in The Expansion of American Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991)
150. Minutes of the Business Meeting, Fifteenth Conference on Problems of Aging, 22 Jan 1953, NWS, Box 30, Folder Macy Conference on Aging 1953 [final], p. 2
151. Hyung Wook Park, "Refiguring Old Age: Shaping Scientific Research on Senescence, 1900-1960" (PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2009), 2, 31, 40-2, 49, 63, 307-11
152. Robert H. Kargon, "Temple to Science: Cooperative Research and the Birth of the California Institute of Technology," HSPS 8 (1977): 3-31
153. Stuart W. Leslie, "Playing the Education Game to Win: The Military and Interdisciplinary Research at Stanford," HSPS 18, no. 1 (1987): 55-88, on 57-61
154. Glenn E. Bugos, "Managing Cooperative Research and Borderland Science in the National Research Council, 1922-1942," HSPS 20, no. 1 (1989): 1-32
155. Kohler, Partners in Science (ref. 62), 268-83, 303-29
156. On the cooperative environment at the University of Chicago and Woods Hole, see Jane Maienschein, "Cytology in 1924: Expansion and Collaboration," in Bensen, Maienschein, Rainger, Expansion (ref. 124)
157. Jane Maienschein, "Whitman at Chicago: Establishing a Chicago Style of Biology?" in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith Benson, and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988)
158. W. E. Garrey and E. V. Cowdry, "Marine Biological Laboratory Increases Activities," The Nation's Health 7 (1925): 805-08
159. "C. M. McCay and John A. Saxton (cont'd.)," 21 Oct 1940
160. and C. M. McCay, "The Influence of Diet upon the Physiological and Biochemical Changes which Accompany Ageing in the Animal Body: A Progress Report," 17 Apr 1940, both in RF, Series 200D, Record Group 1.1, Box 137, Folder 1689
161. Frank Blair Hanson Diary, 12-13 Oct 1943, RF, Series 200, Record Group 2, Box 243, Folder 1680. Its failure in fundraising was partially due to the administrative obstacles of the borderland committees within the NRC. See Bugos, "Managing Cooperative Research" (ref. 128), 29-32
162. Minutes of Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Rockefeller Foundation, 19 Jan 1945; and 13 Jun 1947; both in RF, Record Group 16; Leland DeVinney to Norman Buchanan, 5 Oct 1955, RF, Series 910, Record Group 3.1, Box 3, Folder 22
163. See, for example, "Food Experts Here for Study," Norfolk Seabag: U. S. Naval Training Station, 13 May 1944
164. C. M. McCay and G. L. Rumsey, "Final Report - Part I: Effect of Ionized Radiation on the Nutritive Value of Food (Beef ) as Determined by Growth, Reproduction, and Lactation Studies with Dogs," 15 Mar 1960, CMM, Box 8
165. J. S. Restarski, R. A. Gortner, Jr., and C. M. McCay, "Effect of Acid Beverage Containing Fluorides upon the Teeth of Rats and Puppies," Journal of the American Dental Association 32 (1945): 668-75
166. In this sense, gerontology is similar to materials science, because both fields benefit from contributions by scholars who maintain their own disciplinary affiliation. See Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, "The Construction of a Discipline: Materials Science in the United States," HSPS 31, no. 2 (2001): 223-48
167. Achenbaum, Crossing Frontiers (ref. 8), 52-84
168. See Maienschein, "Cytology in 1924" (ref. 128)
169. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction (ref. 70)
170. Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz, eds., Greater than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
171. E. V. Cowdry, "Woods Hole Conference on the Problems of Aging," Scientific Monthly 45 (1937): 189-91
172. For Simms's work on this topic, see Benjamin N. Berg and Henry S. Simms, "Nutrition and Longevity in the Rat: Longevity and Onset of Disease with Different Levels of Food Intake," JN 71 (1960): 255-63
173. Gerontology Study Section Minutes of Meeting, 20 Nov 1946, p. 5; and 21 Feb 1947, p. 4; both in RGSS, Box 1, Folder Minutes of Meetings
174. Gerontology Study Section Minutes of Meeting, 21 Feb 1947, RGSS
175. Ernest M. Allen to McCay, 7 Jul 1947; David Price to McCay, 24 Feb 1949; Price to McCay, 1 Mar 1950; Allen to McCay, 24 Feb 1951, all in CMM, Box 21, Folder USPH 584 Prints 1952. After the Gerontology Study Section was disbanded in 1949, the National Heart Institute, to which Nathan Shock's Gerontology Research Center belonged, supported McCay's research. See "NIH Research and Training Grants Active on January 31, 1958," NWS, Box 12, Folder Annual Reports 1957, p. 17
176. Melinda Cooper, "Resuscitations: Stem Cells and the Crisis of Old Age," Body and Society 12 (2006): 1-23
177. On Carrel's influence upon early gerontologists, see E. V. Cowdry, "Ageing of Tissue Fluids," in Cowdry, ed., Problems of Ageing (ref. 120), 643; Edward J. Stieglitz to Carrel, 26 Jun 1940, AC, Box 69, Folder 27; Alfred Cohn to Carrel, 15 Oct 1935, AC, Box 41, Folder 22; Lawrence Frank to Carrel, 24 Oct 1935, AC, Box 61, Folder 41; T. Wingate Todd to Carrel, 9 Nov 1937, AC, Box 65, Folder 29
178. Carrel to McCay, 21 Dec 1937, AC, Box 64, Folder 9; "Carrel Sees Lives Extended for Ages," New York Times, 13 Dec 1935
179. Report of the Committee upon the Importance of Future Research into the Biology of Senescence, 15 Sep 1941, WBC, Box 82, Folder 1113
180. See Nathan Shock, Richard Greulich, Paul Costa, Jr., Reubin Andres, Edward Lakatta, David Arenberg, and Jordan Tobin, Normal Human Aging: The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (Baltimore: National Institutes of Health, 1984), 63-94
181. W. T. James and C. M. McCay, "An Analysis of the Effect of Retarded Growth on Behavior in Dogs," Journal of Comparative Psychology 37 (1944): 173-85
182. and "Progress from Research upon Aging during the Year 1953," both in CMM, Box 21, Folder USPH 584 Prints 1952
183. The psychological and neurological dimensions of the problem of caloric restriction continued to be studied by later researchers. See Masoro, Caloric Restriction (ref. 4), 55-60
184. The following scholarly works are relevant to this situation: Galison, Image and Logic (ref. 9), 781-844
185. Star and Griesemer, "Institutional Ecology" (ref. 9)
186. Löwy, "Loose Concepts" (ref. 9)
187. Löwy, Between Bench and Bedside (ref. 9), 247-53
188. Laura Beil, "Lean Living," Science News 134 (1988): 142-43, on 143
189. Evan C. Hadley, Chhanda Dutta, Judith Finkelstein, Tamara B. Harris, Mark A. Lane, George S. Roth, Sherry S. Sherman, and Pamela E. Starke-Reed, "Human Implications of Caloric Restriction's Effects on Aging in Laboratory Animals: An Overview of Opportunities for Research," Journals of Gerontology: Series A 56A (2001): 5-6, on 5
190. Elie Metchnioff, Études sur la nature humaine: Essai de philosophie optimiste (Paris: Masson, 1903), 386. In the book's conclusion, in which he mentioned "gérontologie," Metchnioff argued that medical science could help people age in a more physiological, rather than pathological, way
191. "Minutes of the Second Annual Meeting of the Council of the Gerontological Society, Inc.," JG 2 (1947): 163-66, on 166
192. Toby A. Appel, "Organizing Biology: The American Society of Naturalists and Its 'Affiliated Societies,' 1883-1923," in Rainger, Benson, Maienschein, American Development (ref. 128), 87-120