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Volumn 95, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 599-626

Invisible and involuntary: Female genital mutilation as a basis for asylum

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; CHILD; CLASSIFICATION; CONTRACEPTION; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; FEMALE; FEMALE CIRCUMCISION; HISTORY; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; LEGAL ASPECT; MIGRATION; REFUGEE; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL CLASS; TORTURE; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE; UNITED NATIONS; UNITED STATES; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

EID: 77950342333     PISSN: 00108847     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (3)

References (262)
  • 1
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    • See infra text accompanying notes 8-10
    • See infra text accompanying notes 8-10.
  • 2
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    • a 42
    • 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 3
    • 77951480698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part II
    • See infra Part II.
  • 4
    • 77951494359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • INA § 101 (a) (42)
    • INA , pp. 101
  • 5
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42).
    • U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 6
    • 77951493706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part III
    • See infra Part III.
  • 7
    • 77951455938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • INA § 101 (a) (42)
    • INA , pp. 101
  • 8
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42).
    • U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 9
    • 77951454877 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 10
    • 77951455221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • range of terms for FGM reflects the corresponding range of opinions about the practice. Proponents of FGM, for example, often call the practice "female circumcision", which is a more clinical, less loaded term. Cf, available at, Conversely, the term "mutilation" "emphasizes the gravity of the act"
    • The range of terms for FGM reflects the corresponding range of opinions about the practice. Proponents of FGM, for example, often call the practice "female circumcision", which is a more clinical, less loaded term. Cf. WORLD HEALTH ORG., ELIMINATING FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: AN INTERAGENCY STATEMENT 22 (2008), available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/ 9789241596442-eng.pdf. Conversely, the term "mutilation" "emphasizes the gravity of the act"
    • (2008) World Health Org., Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement , pp. 22
  • 11
    • 77951441007 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id, As I believe that the practice violates the human rights of women who are involuntarily subjected to it, I use the term "female genital mutilation" or "FGM." For the terminology used by various international organizations
    • Id. at 3. As I believe that the practice violates the human rights of women who are involuntarily subjected to it, I use the term "female genital mutilation" or "FGM." For the terminology used by various international organizations
  • 12
    • 77951475494 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see id
    • see id. at 22.
  • 13
    • 77951482769 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id, 4
    • See id. at 1, 4.
  • 14
    • 0003991827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, Anika Rahman & Nahid Toubia eds., hereinafter FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION describing the role of FGM as a rite of passage in some communities
    • See FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: A GUIDE TO LAWS AND POLICIES WORLDWIDE 5 (Anika Rahman & Nahid Toubia eds., 2000) [hereinafter FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION] (describing the role of FGM as a rite of passage in some communities) ;
    • (2000) Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide , pp. 5
  • 15
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, explaining that some societies use FGM in coming-of-age rituals, to "raise a girl properly and to prepare her for adulthood and marriage", and that FGM is so firmly a part of the social structure that some girls "may desire to undergo the procedure as a result of social pressure from peers"
    • WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 5-6 (explaining that some societies use FGM in coming-of-age rituals, to "raise a girl properly and to prepare her for adulthood and marriage", and that FGM is so firmly a part of the social structure that some girls "may desire to undergo the procedure as a result of social pressure from peers") ;
    • World Health Org. , pp. 5-6
  • 16
    • 4243617534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The ritual: Disfiguring, hurtful, wildly festive
    • see also, Jan. 31
    • see also Howard W. French, The Ritual: Disfiguring, Hurtful, Wildly Festive, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 31, 1997, at A4.
    • (1997) N. Y. Times
    • French, H.W.1
  • 18
    • 84455196815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Area immigrants with wounds that won't heal: Mutilated women seek asylum in U. S.
    • Nov. 3
    • Pamela Constable, Area Immigrants with Wounds that Won't Heal: Mutilated Women Seek Asylum in U. S., WASH. POST, Nov. 3, 2008, at B1.
    • (2008) Wash. Post
    • Constable, P.1
  • 19
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 8, "Female genital mutilation is mostly carried out on girls between the ages of 0 and 15 years. However, occasionally, adult and married women are also subjected to the procedure."
    • See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 4 ("Female genital mutilation is mostly carried out on girls between the ages of 0 and 15 years. However, occasionally, adult and married women are also subjected to the procedure.").
    • World Health Org. , pp. 4
  • 20
    • 77951495449 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 1.
  • 21
    • 77951433623 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 22
    • 0041320538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Individualizing justice through multiculturalism: The liberals'dilemma
    • 1111
    • Doriane Lambelet Coleman, Individualizing Justice Through Multiculturalism: The Liberals'Dilemma, 96 COLUM. L. REV. 1093, 1111 (1996).
    • (1996) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.96 , pp. 1093
    • Coleman, D.L.1
  • 23
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, 4, 11 noting, for example, mat "babies born to women who have undergone female genital mutilation suffer a higher rate of neonatal death compared with babies born to women who have not undergone the procedure"
    • WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 1, 4, 11 (noting, for example, mat "babies born to women who have undergone female genital mutilation suffer a higher rate of neonatal death compared with babies born to women who have not undergone the procedure") ;
    • World Health Org. , pp. 1
  • 25
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8
    • WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 4.
    • World Health Org. , pp. 4
  • 26
    • 77951473204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 27
    • 77951481623 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 28
    • 77951487684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 29
    • 77951467066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 30
    • 0003991819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 10, Some definitional difficulty still exists in this catch-all category
    • FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION, supra note 10, at 8. Some definitional difficulty still exists in this catch-all category.
    • Female Genital Mutilation , pp. 8
  • 31
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 8
    • See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 28.
    • World Health Org. , pp. 28
  • 32
    • 77951491384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 15
    • Coleman, supra note 15.
    • Coleman1
  • 33
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 8, noting that the health risks and complications "tend to be significantly more severe and prevalent the more extensive the procedure"
    • See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 11 (noting that the health risks and complications "tend to be significantly more severe and prevalent the more extensive the procedure").
    • World Health Org. , pp. 11
  • 34
    • 77951492135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id.
    • See id.;
  • 35
    • 77951488431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 11
    • Constable, supra note 11.
    • Constable1
  • 36
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 8
    • See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 33.
    • World Health Org. , pp. 33
  • 37
    • 77951427439 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 11;
  • 38
    • 0003991819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also, supra note 10
    • see also FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION, supra note 10, at 7-9.
    • Female Genital Mutilation , pp. 7-9
  • 39
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 8, Some women who have immigrated to the United States, France, and other countries have found surgeons who have been able to reverse some but not all of the physical consequences of FGM
    • See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 34-35. Some women who have immigrated to the United States, France, and other countries have found surgeons who have been able to reverse some (but not all) of the physical consequences of FGM.
    • World Health Org. , pp. 34-35
  • 40
    • 77951482768 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The kindest cut
    • See Eve Conant, Oct. 20, available at
    • See Eve Conant, The Kindest Cut, NEWSWEEK, Oct. 20, 2009, available at http://www.newsweek.com/id/218692/page/1.
    • (2009) Newsweek
  • 41
    • 77951454700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 8, discussing the dangers that FGM poses for childbirth
    • See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 11 (discussing the dangers that FGM poses for childbirth).
    • World Health Org. , pp. 11
  • 42
    • 77951480318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 43
    • 77951460587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id, The WHO also provides a chart of the countries whose populations practice female genital mutilation and indicates the prevalence of FGM within each country
    • See id. at 4. The WHO also provides a chart of the countries whose populations practice female genital mutilation and indicates the prevalence of FGM within each country.
  • 44
    • 77951479579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 29-30.
  • 45
    • 77951472120 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • INA § 101 (a) (42)
    • INA , pp. 101
  • 46
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 47
    • 77951434012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 49
    • 77951477619 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prela v. Ashcroft, 518 7th Or
    • Prela v. Ashcroft, 394 F.3d 515, 518 (7th Or. 2005)
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.394 , pp. 515
  • 50
    • 77951486942 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing Asani v. INS, 723 7th Cir
    • (citing Asani v. INS, 154 F.3d 719, 723 (7th Cir. 1998)).
    • (1998) F.3d , vol.154 , pp. 719
  • 51
    • 77951456696 scopus 로고
    • Mitev v. INS, 1331 7th Cir
    • Mitev v. INS, 67 F.3d 1325, 1331 (7th Cir. 1995).
    • (1995) F.3d , vol.67 , pp. 1325
  • 52
    • 84902633961 scopus 로고
    • See Fatin v. INS, 1243 3d Cir, "'Persecution' is an extreme concept that does not include every sort of treatment our society regards as offensive."
    • See Fatin v. INS, 12 F.3d 1233, 1243 (3d Cir. 1993) ("'[P] ersecution' is an extreme concept that does not include every sort of treatment our society regards as offensive.").
    • (1993) F.3d , vol.12 , pp. 1233
  • 53
    • 77951451780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, §, a 42
    • See INA § 101 (a) (42)
    • INA , pp. 101
  • 54
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42).
    • U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 55
    • 77951437882 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Dobrican v. INS, 167 7th Cir, "To show a 'well founded fear' a petitioner must demonstrate both that the fear is subjectively genuine and that it is reasonable in light of the objective credible evidence." citations omitted
    • See Dobrican v. INS, 77 F.3d 164, 167 (7th Cir. 1996) ("To show a 'well founded fear' a petitioner must demonstrate both that the fear is (subjectively) genuine and that it is reasonable in light of the (objective) credible evidence." (citations omitted)) ;
    • (1996) F.3d , vol.77 , pp. 164
  • 56
    • 77951486940 scopus 로고
    • Castillo v. INS, 1121 9th Cir, "The determination that an alien has a wellfounded fear of persecution has both an objective and subjective component" citations omitted
    • Castillo v. INS, 951 F.2d 1117, 1121 (9th Cir. 1991) ("The determination that an alien has a wellfounded fear of persecution has both an objective and subjective component" (citations omitted)).
    • (1991) F.2d , vol.951 , pp. 1117
  • 57
    • 77951439953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, "The subjective component requires a showing that the alien's fear is genuine."
    • See Castillo, 951 F.2d at 1121 ("The subjective component requires a showing that the alien's fear is genuine.").
    • F.2d , vol.951 , pp. 1121
    • Castillo1
  • 58
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    • See id
    • See id.
  • 59
    • 77951473970 scopus 로고
    • Diaz-Escobar v. INS, 1492 9th Cir
    • Diaz-Escobar v. INS, 782 F.2d 1488, 1492 (9th Cir. 1986).
    • (1986) F.2d , vol.782 , pp. 1488
  • 60
    • 77951443051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 34, § 33.042 a ii
    • See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[2] [a] [ii].
    • Gordon1
  • 61
    • 77951459111 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, §§ 208.13 b 2 iii, 1208.12 b 2 iii
    • See 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.13 (b) (2) (iii), 1208.12 (b) (2) (iii) (2009) ;
    • (2009) C. F. R. , vol.8
  • 62
    • 77951454876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ndom v. Ashcroft, 754 9th Cir, "We are... more likely to find that particular instances of past persecution experienced by an applicant were inflicted on account of a protected ground where similar acts are regularly experienced by others who share the applicant's protected affiliation. " citations omitted
    • Ndom v. Ashcroft, 384 F.3d 743, 754 (9th Cir. 2004) ("[W]e are... more likely to find that particular instances of past persecution experienced by an applicant were inflicted on account of a protected ground where similar acts are regularly experienced by others who share the applicant's protected affiliation. " (citations omitted)).
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.384 , pp. 743
  • 63
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    • See, supra note 34, § 33.042 b i.
    • See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[2] [b] [i].
    • Gordon1
  • 64
    • 77951461733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, §§ 208.13 b 1 i B, 1208.13 b 1 i B allowing an immigration judge to deny an asylum application if the government can show by a preponderance of the evidence that "t he applicant could avoid future persecution by relocating to another part of the applicant's country of nationality or, if stateless, another part of the applicant's country of last habitual residence, and under all the circumstances, it would be reasonable to expect the applicant to do so"
    • See 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.13 (b) (1) (i) (B), 1208.13 (b) (1) (i) (B) (allowing an immigration judge to deny an asylum application if the government can show by a preponderance of the evidence that "[t] he applicant could avoid future persecution by relocating to another part of the applicant's country of nationality or, if stateless, another part of the applicant's country of last habitual residence, and under all the circumstances, it would be reasonable to expect the applicant to do so").
    • C. F. R. , vol.8
  • 65
    • 77951446923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • re H-, 21 I. & N. Dec, 346, B. I. A.
    • In re H-, 21 I. & N. Dec. 337, 346 (B. I. A. 1996).
    • (1996) , pp. 337
  • 66
    • 77951457074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 208.13 b 1 iii, 1208.13 b 1 iii
    • 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.13 (b) (1) (iii), 1208.13 (b) (1) (iii).
    • C. F. R. , vol.8
  • 67
    • 77951482394 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 33 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 33 and accompanying text
  • 68
    • 77951464855 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • INA § 101 (a) (42)
    • INA , pp. 101
  • 69
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 70
    • 77951485825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-13, §, a 3 B i.
    • REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-13, § 101 (a) (3) (B) (i)
  • 71
    • 84888235199 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 302-03
    • Stat 302, 302-03.
    • Stat. , vol.119 , pp. 302
  • 72
    • 77951454701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re Kasinga, 21 I. & N. Dec, 365, B. LA, noting that the persecutor's "subjective 'punitive' or 'malignant' intent is not required for harm to constitute persecution"
    • See In re Kasinga, 21 I. & N. Dec. 357, 365 (B. LA. 1996) (noting that the persecutor's "subjective 'punitive' or 'malignant' intent is not required for harm to constitute persecution").
    • (1996) , pp. 357
  • 73
    • 77951438641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 34, § 33.043
    • GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[3]
    • Gordon1
  • 74
    • 77951497319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing Eduard v. Ashcroft, 192-93 5th Cir
    • (citing Eduard v. Ashcroft, 379 F.3d 182, 192-93 (5th Cir. 2004)).
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.379 , pp. 182
  • 75
    • 77951454875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. § 33.044ci
    • See id. § 33.04[4][c][i].
  • 76
    • 77951484319 scopus 로고
    • re Acosta, 19 I. & N. Dec. 211, 233 B. I. A.
    • In re Acosta, 19 I. & N. Dec. 211, 233 (B. I. A 1985).
    • (1985)
  • 77
    • 77951489732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 78
    • 77951491387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 34, § 33.044 ci
    • GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[4] [c][i].
    • Gordon1
  • 79
    • 77951495448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Da Silva v. Ashcroft, 5 1st Cir, citations omitted
    • Da Silva v. Ashcroft 394 F.3d 1, 5 (1st Cir. 2005) (citations omitted).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.394 , pp. 1
  • 80
    • 77951471792 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. citations omitted
    • Id. (citations omitted).
  • 81
    • 77951474331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec, 959 B. I. A.
    • See In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 951, 959 (B. I. A. 2006)
    • (2006) , pp. 951
  • 82
    • 84954203748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • aff'd sub nom. Castillo-Arias v. U. S. Att'y Gen., 11th Cir
    • aff'd sub nom. Castillo-Arias v. U. S. Att'y Gen., 446 F.3d 1190 (11th Cir. 2006) ;
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.446 , pp. 1190
  • 83
    • 77951451779 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also In re A-M-E-&J-G-U-, 241. & N. Dec, 74-75 B. I. A, holding that "affluent Guatemalans" are not members of a particular social group because they lack visibility as a group
    • see also In re A-M-E-&J-G-U-, 241. & N. Dec. 69, 74-75 (B. I. A 2007) (holding that "affluent Guatemalans" are not members of a particular social group because they lack visibility as a group).
    • (2007) , pp. 69
  • 84
    • 77951449038 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec
    • In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 959.
  • 85
    • 84954210690 scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Sanchez-Trujillo v. INS, 1577 9th Cir, "Major segments of the population of an embattled nation, even though undoubtedly at some risk from general political violence, will rarely, if ever, constitute a distinct 'social group' for the purposes of establishing refugee status. To hold otherwise would be tantamount to extending refugee status to every alien displaced by general conditions of unrest or violence in his or her home country."
    • See, e.g., Sanchez-Trujillo v. INS, 801 F.2d 1571, 1577 (9th Cir. 1986) ("Major segments of the population of an embattled nation, even though undoubtedly at some risk from general political violence, will rarely, if ever, constitute a distinct 'social group' for the purposes of establishing refugee status. To hold otherwise would be tantamount to extending refugee status to every alien displaced by general conditions of unrest or violence in his or her home country.").
    • (1986) F.2d , vol.801 , pp. 1571
  • 86
    • 84954239613 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Hong Ying Gao v. Gonzales, 70 2d Cir
    • See Hong Ying Gao v. Gonzales, 440 F.3d 62, 70 (2d Cir. 2006).
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.440 , pp. 62
  • 87
    • 77951446155 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Fisher v. INS, 963 9th Cir, holding that because the applicant had "demonstrated only discrimination on account of her sex", she was not eligible for relief
    • See, e.g., Fisher v. INS, 79 F.3d 955, 963 (9th Cir. 1996) (holding that because the applicant had "demonstrated only discrimination on account of her sex", she was not eligible for relief).
    • (1996) F.3d , vol.79 , pp. 955
  • 88
    • 84902633961 scopus 로고
    • But see Fatin v. INS, 1241 3d Cir, holding that "Iranian women who refuse to conform to the government's gender-specific laws and social norms" may constitute a particular social group emphasis omitted
    • But see Fatin v. INS, 12 F.3d 1233, 1241 (3d Cir. 1993) (holding that "Iranian women who refuse to conform to the government's gender-specific laws and social norms" may constitute a particular social group (emphasis omitted)).
    • (1993) F.3d , vol.12 , pp. 1233
  • 89
    • 84865153192 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Lukwago v. Ashcroft, 172 3d Cir, "A 'particular social group' must exist independently of the persecution suffered by the applicant for asylum."
    • See Lukwago v. Ashcroft, 329 F.3d 157, 172 (3d Cir. 2003) ("[A] 'particular social group' must exist independently of the persecution suffered by the applicant for asylum.").
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.329 , pp. 157
  • 90
    • 77951452509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 21 I. & N. Dec, B. I. A.
    • 21 I. & N. Dec. 357 (B. I. A 1996).
    • (1996) , pp. 357
  • 91
    • 77951441405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 358.
  • 92
    • 77951461347 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 93
    • 77951465979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 94
    • 77951480697 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 368.
  • 95
    • 77951486941 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 96
    • 77951478005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id, "The particular social group is defined by common characteristics that members of the group either cannot change, or should not be required to change because such characteristics are fundamental to their individual identities."
    • Id. at 366 ("[T]he particular social group is defined by common characteristics that members of the group either cannot change, or should not be required to change because such characteristics are fundamental to their individual identities.").
  • 97
    • 77951496595 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 98
    • 77951488430 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 358.
  • 99
    • 84900817311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 10th Cir
    • 422 F.3d 1187 (10th Cir. 2005).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.422 , pp. 1187
  • 100
    • 77951464854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 1199.
  • 101
    • 77951468534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id, finding it noteworthy that "Kasinga's explanation provides no reason why more than gender or tribal membership would be required to identify a social group", although including opposition to FGM as part of the definition would not harm the applicant's claim
    • See id. at 1200 (finding it noteworthy that "Kasinga's explanation provides no reason why more than gender or tribal membership would be required to identify a social group", although including opposition to FGM as part of the definition would not harm the applicant's claim).
  • 102
    • 77951446924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 9th Cir
    • 400 F.3d 785 (9th Cir. 2005).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.400 , pp. 785
  • 103
    • 77951443050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 800.
  • 104
    • 77951495891 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 105
    • 84900817311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Niang v. Gonzales, 1202 10th Cir, "Once one discredits... the threats of future harm... one could rationally decide that she had failed to show that if she returned... she would be killed or otherwise subjected to torture."
    • See, e.g., Niang v. Gonzales, 422 F.3d 1187, 1202 (10th Cir. 2005) ("Once one discredits... the threats of future harm... one could rationally decide that she had failed to show that if she returned... she would be killed or otherwise subjected to torture.") ;
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.422 , pp. 1187
  • 106
    • 77951458745 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oforji v. Ashcroft, 613 7th Cir, noting that an asylum applicant can show that she has "suffered past persecution on account of one of the enumerated categories, creating a rebuttable presumption of future persecution"
    • Oforji v. Ashcroft, 354 F.3d 609, 613 (7th Cir. 2003) (noting that an asylum applicant can show that she has "suffered past persecution on account of one of the enumerated categories, creating a rebuttable presumption of future persecution") ;
    • (2003) F.3d , vol.354 , pp. 609
  • 107
    • 77951462462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Seifu v. Ashcroft, 323-24 5th Cir, noting that the act of FGM is "the very fundamental change required to rebut the presumption of persecution created by the showing of past persecution"
    • Seifu v. Ashcroft, 80 F. App'x. 323, 323-24 (5th Cir. 2003) (noting that the act of FGM is "the very fundamental change required to rebut the presumption of persecution created by the showing of past persecution").
    • (2003) F. App'x , vol.80 , pp. 323
  • 108
    • 77951452508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • B. I. A.
    • 24 I. & N. Dec. 296 (B. I. A. 2007)
    • (2007) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 296
  • 109
    • 77951449399 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • vacated, Op. Att'y Gen
    • vacated, 24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008).
    • (2008) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 617
  • 110
    • 77951457808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 296.
  • 111
    • 77951469263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 299.
  • 112
    • 77951472119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 113
    • 77951461734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id, The BIA had previously held that forced sterilization was a form of continuing persecution
    • See id. at 299-300. The BIA had previously held that forced sterilization was a form of continuing persecution.
  • 114
    • 77951436783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In reY-T-L-, B. I. A.
    • See In reY-T-L-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 601 (B. I. A. 2003).
    • (2003) I. & N. Dec. , vol.23 , pp. 601
  • 115
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42, "For purposes of determinations under tins chapter, a person who has been forced. to undergo involuntary sterilization, or who has been persecuted for failure or refusal to undergo such a procedure..., shall be deemed to have been persecuted on account of political opinion, and a person who has a well founded fear that he or she will be forced to undergo such a procedure or subject to persecution for such failure, refusal, or resistance shall be deemed to have a well founded fear of persecution on account of political opinion. "
    • See INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006) ("For purposes of determinations under tins chapter, a person who has been forced... to undergo involuntary sterilization, or who has been persecuted for failure or refusal to undergo such a procedure..., shall be deemed to have been persecuted on account of political opinion, and a person who has a well founded fear that he or she will be forced to undergo such a procedure or subject to persecution for such failure, refusal, or resistance shall be deemed to have a well founded fear of persecution on account of political opinion. ").
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 116
    • 77951462828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re A-T-, at, "FGM is similar to forced sterilization in the sense that it is a harm that is normally performed only once but has ongoing physical and emotional effects."
    • See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 300 ("FGM is similar to forced sterilization in the sense that it is a harm that is normally performed only once but has ongoing physical and emotional effects....").
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 300
  • 117
    • 77951461346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. "Congress has not seen fit to recognize FGM... in similar fashion with special statutory provisions."
    • See id. ("Congress has not seen fit to recognize FGM... in similar fashion with special statutory provisions.").
  • 118
    • 84994108365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2d Cir
    • 529 F.3d 99 (2d Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F.3d , vol.529 , pp. 99
  • 119
    • 77951481288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 114.
  • 120
    • 77951474747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. putting "the burden on the government to show that these particular petitioners are not at risk of further mutilation"
    • See id. (putting "the burden on the government to show that these particular petitioners are not at risk of further mutilation").
  • 121
    • 77951432525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id, "Nothing in the regulation suggests that the future threats to life or freedom must come in the same form or be the same act as the past persecution. "
    • Id. at 115-16 ("Nothing in the regulation suggests that the future threats to life or freedom must come in the same form or be the same act as the past persecution. ").
  • 122
    • 77951478647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 116.
  • 123
    • 77951449399 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Op. Att'y Gen
    • 24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008).
    • (2008) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 617
  • 124
    • 77951440323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 621-23.
  • 125
    • 77951443048 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 624;
  • 126
    • 77951496594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also, §, b 1 i.
    • see also 8 C. F. R. § 1208.16 (b) (1) (i) (2009).
    • (2009) C. F. R. , vol.8 , pp. 120816
  • 127
    • 77951494080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • re A-T-, at
    • In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 624;
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 624
  • 128
    • 77951494713 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also, §, b 1 i A-B, ii
    • see also 8 C. F. R. § 1208.16 (b) (1) (i) (A)-(B), (ii).
    • C. F. R. , vol.8 , pp. 120816
  • 129
    • 77951494080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re A-T-, at
    • See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 624;
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 624
  • 130
    • 77951494713 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also, §, b 1 iii
    • see also 8 C. F. R. § 1208.16 (b) (1) (iii).
    • C. F. R. , vol.8 , pp. 120816
  • 131
    • 77951491770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part I.
    • See supra Part I.
  • 132
    • 0000978146 scopus 로고
    • The influence of cultural relativism on international human rights law: Female circumcision as a case study
    • See, e.g., 396, "If all cultures are equally valid, on what authority can the human rights system evaluate these practices?"
    • See, e.g., Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQUALITY 367, 396 (1989) ("If all cultures are equally valid, on what authority can the human rights system evaluate these practices?").
    • (1989) Law & Inequality , vol.7 , pp. 367
    • Brennan, K.1
  • 133
    • 84994108365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2d Cir
    • 529 F.3d 99 (2d Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F.3d , vol.529 , pp. 99
  • 134
    • 77951449399 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Op. Att'y Gen
    • 24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008).
    • (2008) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 617
  • 135
    • 77951470681 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying notes 90-99
    • See supra text accompanying notes 90-99.
  • 136
    • 84994192248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re A-T-, at, referring to a case in which the BIA granted humanitarian asylum to "two women who had suffered female genital mutilation multiple times"
    • See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 621 (referring to a case in which the BIA granted humanitarian asylum to "two women who had suffered female genital mutilation multiple times"
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 621
  • 137
    • 84954226931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing In re S-A-K-& H-A-H-, 465 B. I. A.
    • (citing In re S-A-K-& H-A-H-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 464, 465 (B. I. A 2008))) ;
    • (2008) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 464
  • 140
    • 77951483798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 20-39.
  • 141
    • 77951470679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Beskovic v. Gonzales, 2d Cir, "A 'minor beating" or... any physical degradation designed to cause pain, humiliation, or other suffering, may rise to the level of persecution if it occurred in the context of an arrest or detention on the basis of a protected ground." citation omitted
    • See, e.g, Beskovic v. Gonzales, 467 F.3d 223 (2d Cir. 2006) ("[A] 'minor beating" or... any physical degradation designed to cause pain, humiliation, or other suffering, may rise to the level of persecution if it occurred in the context of an arrest or detention on the basis of a protected ground." (citation omitted)).
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.467 , pp. 223
  • 142
    • 77951496591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Makhoul v. Ashcroft, 80 1st Cir, "As a theoretical matter, we acknowledge that, under the right set of circumstances, a finding of past persecution might rest on a showing of psychological harm." citations omitted
    • See, e.g., Makhoul v. Ashcroft, 387 F.3d 75, 80 (1st Cir. 2004) ("As a theoretical matter, we acknowledge that, under the right set of circumstances, a finding of past persecution might rest on a showing of psychological harm." (citations omitted)) ;
    • (2004) F.3d , vol.387 , pp. 75
  • 143
    • 84938092373 scopus 로고
    • Kovac v. INS, 104, 106-07 9th Cir, reasoning that the asylum applicant's inability to "earn a decent living to support his family" because of discrimination may constitute persecution sufficient for asylum internal quotation marks omitted
    • Kovac v. INS, 407 F.2d 102, 104, 106-07 (9th Cir. 1969) (reasoning that the asylum applicant's inability to "earn a decent living to support [his] family" because of discrimination may constitute persecution sufficient for asylum (internal quotation marks omitted)).
    • (1969) F.2d , vol.407 , pp. 102
  • 144
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42
    • See INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 145
    • 77951483796 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying note 56
    • See supra text accompanying note 56.
  • 146
    • 77951432524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 105 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 105 and accompanying text.
  • 147
    • 77951438639 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying notes 56-59
    • See supra text accompanying notes 56-59.
  • 148
    • 77951458744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying notes 62-65
    • See supra text accompanying notes 62-65.
  • 149
    • 77951491025 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying notes 60-61
    • See supra text accompanying notes 60-61.
  • 150
    • 77951475880 scopus 로고
    • 2d Cir
    • 947 F.2d 660 (2d Cir. 1991).
    • (1991) F.2d , vol.947 , pp. 660
  • 151
    • 77951437515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 663-64.
  • 152
    • 77951481625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 664.
  • 153
    • 84954239613 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2d Cir
    • 440 F.3d 62 (2d Cir. 2006)
    • (2006) F.3d , vol.440 , pp. 62
  • 154
    • 77951469261 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • vacated, Keisler v. Hong Yin Gao
    • vacated, Keisler v. Hong Yin Gao, 128 S. Ct 345 (2007).
    • (2007) S. Ct , vol.128 , pp. 345
  • 155
    • 77951441786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 64.
  • 156
    • 84954208985 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • B. I. A.
    • 23 I. & N. Dec. 951 (B. I. A. 2006).
    • (2006) I. & N. Dec , vol.23 , pp. 951
  • 157
    • 77951479387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 959-60.
  • 158
    • 77951477264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 956.
  • 160
    • 77951435960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶, emphasis omitted
    • UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶ 11 (emphasis omitted).
  • 161
    • 77951450441 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see In re C-A-, at
    • see In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 956.
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.23 , pp. 956
  • 162
    • 77951483448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 960;
  • 163
    • 77951430688 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UNCHR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶, "A social group cannot be defined exclusively by the fact that it is targeted for persecution although. persecution may be a relevant element in determining the visibility of a particular social group." emphasis omitted
    • UNCHR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶ 2 ("[A] social group cannot be defined exclusively by the fact that it is targeted for persecution (although... persecution may be a relevant element in determining the visibility of a particular social group)." (emphasis omitted)).
  • 164
    • 77951491385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶
    • UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶ 11.
  • 165
    • 77951450441 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re C-A-, at, 959-60 claiming that the UNHCR Guidelines adopted "the Second Circuit's 'social perception' approach" and later referring to this requirement as "social visibility"
    • See In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 956, 959-60 (claiming that the UNHCR Guidelines adopted "the Second Circuit's 'social perception' approach" and later referring to this requirement as "social visibility").
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.23 , pp. 956
  • 166
    • 84954231951 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • B. I. A.
    • 24 I. & N. Dec. 69 (B. I. A. 2007)
    • (2007) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 69
  • 167
    • 77951488077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Aff'd sub nam
    • Ucelo-Gomez v. Mukasey, 2d Cir
    • aff'd sub nam. Ucelo-Gomez v. Mukasey, 509 F.3d 70 (2d Cir. 2007).
    • (2007) F.3d , vol.509 , pp. 70
  • 168
    • 77951494358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 69.
  • 169
    • 77951443049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 75.
  • 170
    • 84865143734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 9th Cir
    • 542 F.3d 738 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F.3d , vol.542 , pp. 738
  • 171
    • 77951486178 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 745;
  • 172
    • 77951442701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Xiang Ming Jiang v. Mukasey, 168 2d Cir, holding that "people who are targeted for gang violence because they are caught between rival criminal gangs but are not protected by police in China" do not constitute a particular social group for asylum purposes
    • see also Xiang Ming Jiang v. Mukasey, 296 F. App'x 166, 168 (2d Cir. 2008) (holding that "people who are targeted for gang violence because they are caught between rival criminal gangs but are not protected by police in China" do not constitute a particular social group for asylum purposes) ;
    • (2008) F. App'x , vol.296 , pp. 166
  • 173
    • 77951451182 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In re E-A-G-, 594 B. I. A, holding that the group "persons resistant to gang membership" does not constitute a particular social group
    • In re E-A-G-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 591, 594 (B. I. A. 2008) (holding that the group "persons resistant to gang membership" does not constitute a particular social group).
    • (2008) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 591
  • 174
    • 84954204907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 8th Cir
    • 531 F.3d 624 (8th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F.3d , vol.531 , pp. 624
  • 175
    • 77951429958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 629.
  • 176
    • 77951483797 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 177
    • 77951494714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For other decisions rejecting the applicant's proposed social group, see Umoeka v. Att'y Gen., 739 3d Cir, holding that "perceived police informants" did not constitute a particular social group
    • For other decisions rejecting the applicant's proposed social group, see Umoeka v. Att'y Gen., 294 F. App'x 736, 739 (3d Cir. 2008) (holding that "perceived police informants" did not constitute a particular social group) ;
    • (2008) F. App'x , vol.294 , pp. 736
  • 178
    • 77951431389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kholyavskiy v. Mukasey, 572 7th Cir, holding that "the mentally ill" and "Jewish refugees who resettled in the United States" are not particular social groups
    • Kholyavskiy v. Mukasey, 540 F.3d 555, 572 (7th Cir. 2008) (holding that "the mentally ill" and "Jewish refugees who resettled in the United States" are not particular social groups) ;
    • (2008) F.3d , vol.540 , pp. 555
  • 179
    • 77951452508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In re A-T-, 303 B. I. A, expressing doubt that "young Bambara women who oppose arranged marriage have the kind of social visibility that would make them readily identifiable to those who would be inclined to persecute them" citation omitted
    • In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296, 303 (B. I. A. 2007) (expressing doubt that "young Bambara women who oppose arranged marriage have the kind of social visibility that would make them readily identifiable to those who would be inclined to persecute them" (citation omitted)).
    • (2007) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 296
  • 180
    • 77951492136 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part V. A.
    • See supra Part V. A.
  • 182
    • 84954207982 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., In re Kasinga, 358 B. I. A, explaining that, after her father died, the applicant's relatives wanted to subject her to FGM
    • See, e.g., In re Kasinga, 21 I. & N. Dec. 357, 358 (B. I. A. 1996) (explaining that, after her father died, the applicant's relatives wanted to subject her to FGM).
    • (1996) I. & N. Dec. , vol.21 , pp. 357
  • 183
    • 77951497318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 129-31 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 129-31 and accompanying text.
  • 184
    • 77951489731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text.
  • 185
    • 77951427438 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 34, §, 2 explaining that "economic disadvantage alone will not suffice" to constitute persecution
    • See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04 [2] (explaining that "economic disadvantage alone will not suffice" to constitute persecution).
    • Gordon1
  • 186
    • 77951463184 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 132-33 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 132-33 and accompanying text.
  • 187
    • 84865143734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, 746 9th Cir
    • See 542 F.3d 738, 746 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F.3d , vol.542 , pp. 738
  • 188
    • 84954231951 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, 73 B. I. A.
    • See 24 I. & N. Dec. 69, 73 (B. I. A. 2007).
    • (2007) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 69
  • 189
    • 77951438640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 190
    • 77951490087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 73-74.
  • 191
    • 77951491386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 74-75.
  • 192
    • 77951481070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id, "In this regard, we would not expect divestiture when considering wealth as a characteristic on which a social group might be based."
    • Id. at 73-74 ("In this regard, we would not expect divestiture when considering wealth as a characteristic on which a social group might be based.").
  • 193
    • 77951485448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 129-31, and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 129-31, 146-49 and accompanying text
  • 194
    • 77951438251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text.
  • 195
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ina § 101 a 42, §, a 42
    • ina § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 196
    • 77951436783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • B. I. A.
    • 23 I. & N. Dec. 601 (B. I. A. 2003).
    • (2003) I. & N. Dec. , vol.23 , pp. 601
  • 197
    • 77951468181 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • its decision, the BIA relied on an earlier case, In re C-Y-Z-, B. I. A.
    • In its decision, the BIA relied on an earlier case, In re C-Y-Z-, 21 I. & N. Dec. 915 (B. I. A. 1997).
    • (1997) I. & N. Dec. , vol.21 , pp. 915
  • 198
    • 77951479014 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, In re Y-T-L-, at
    • See In re Y-T-L-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 602.
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.23 , pp. 602
  • 199
    • 77951496955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 200
    • 77951450087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 201
    • 77951442133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 607.
  • 202
    • 77951468182 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 605-07.
  • 203
    • 77951476915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 605-08.
  • 204
    • 77951451538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 9th Cir
    • 399 F.3d 1195 (9th Cir. 2005).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.399 , pp. 1195
  • 205
    • 77951434779 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 1197.
  • 206
    • 77951462827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 207
    • 77951473202 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 208
    • 77951443802 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 209
    • 77951451777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 1203.
  • 210
    • 77951457807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 1202-03.
  • 211
    • 77951496593 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 1203.
  • 212
    • 77951446924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 9th Cir
    • 400 F.3d 785 (9th Cir. 2005).
    • (2005) F.3d , vol.400 , pp. 785
  • 213
    • 77951489729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally supra text accompanying notes 78-80
    • See generally supra text accompanying notes 78-80.
  • 214
    • 77951447660 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 400 F.3d at 800.
    • F.3d , vol.400 , pp. 800
  • 215
    • 77951452508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • B. I. A.
    • 24 I. & N. Dec. 296 (B. I. A. 2007).
    • (2007) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 296
  • 216
    • 77951451539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally supra text accompanying notes 82-89. Although the Attorney General recently vacated this case
    • See generally supra text accompanying notes 82-89. Although the Attorney General recently vacated this case
  • 217
    • 77951449399 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see, Op. Att'y Gen, In re A-T-represents the BIA's response to an analogy between FGM and forced sterilization
    • see 24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008), In re A-T-represents the BIA's response to an analogy between FGM and forced sterilization.
    • (2008) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 617
  • 218
    • 77951462828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re A-T-, at
    • See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 300.
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 300
  • 219
    • 77951467067 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 220
    • 77951475493 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 221
    • 77951478299 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 6th Cir
    • 268 F. App'x 373 (6th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F. App'x , vol.268 , pp. 373
  • 222
    • 77951471035 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 374-75.
  • 223
    • 77951469260 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id. at 380
  • 224
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42
    • (citing INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006) ;
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 225
    • 84900811075 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hassan v. Gonzales, 518, 8th Cir
    • Hassan v. Gonzales, 484 F.3d 513, 518 (8th Cir. 2007) ;
    • (2007) F.3d , vol.484 , pp. 513
  • 226
    • 77951482767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In re A-T
    • In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296).
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 296
  • 227
    • 77951478298 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 228
    • 77951491026 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. emphasis added
    • id. (emphasis added).
  • 229
    • 77951484318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 230
    • 77951482767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing In re A-T
    • (citing In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296).
    • I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 296
  • 231
    • 77951430689 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • gee supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text
    • gee supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text.
  • 232
    • 77951437152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying note 28
    • See supra text accompanying note 28.
  • 233
    • 77951428892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cf. supra text accompanying note 107
    • Cf. supra text accompanying note 107.
  • 234
    • 77951466346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying notes 168-69
    • See supra text accompanying notes 168-69.
  • 235
    • 77951457447 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying notes 170-79
    • See supra text accompanying notes 170-79.
  • 236
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42
    • See INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 237
    • 77951434009 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see supra Part II. B.
    • see supra Part II. B.
  • 238
    • 77951478299 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 6th Cir
    • 268 F. App'x 373 (6th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) F. App'x , vol.268 , pp. 373
  • 239
    • 77951473203 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id. at 380
  • 240
    • 77951452508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing In re A-T-, B. I. A.
    • (citing In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296 (B. I. A. 2007)) ;
    • (2007) I. & N. Dec. , vol.24 , pp. 296
  • 241
    • 77951436783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also In re Y-T-L-, B. I. A.
    • see also In re Y-T-L-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 601 (B. I. A 2003).
    • (2003) I. & N. Dec. , vol.23 , pp. 601
  • 242
    • 77951450818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, at
    • See Diallo, 268 F. App'x at 380.
    • F. App'x , vol.268 , pp. 380
    • Diallo1
  • 243
    • 77951477263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part II. A.
    • See supra Part II. A.
  • 245
    • 77951437514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, supra note 34, § 33.102
    • See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.10[2].
    • Gordon1
  • 246
    • 2442738935 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of, Pub. L. No. 105-277, § 2242, 2822
    • See Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-277, § 2242, 112 Stat 2681, 2822.
    • (1998) Stat. , vol.112 , pp. 2681
  • 247
    • 77951429244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 3
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 3.
  • 248
    • 77951474767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. requiring that an individual must believe "that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture" emphasis added
    • See id. (requiring that an individual must believe "that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture" (emphasis added)).
  • 249
    • 78649915608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a 42
    • 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
    • (2006) U. S. C. , vol.8 , pp. 1101
  • 250
    • 77951470680 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying note 45
    • See supra text accompanying note 45.
  • 251
    • 77951458743 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 1
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 1;
  • 252
    • 77951428127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also, §§ 208.18 a 1, 1208.18 a 1, incorporating CAT's definition of torture
    • see also 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.18 (a) (1), 1208.18 (a) (1) (2009) (incorporating CAT's definition of torture).
    • (2009) C. F. R. , vol.8
  • 253
    • 77951452850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 1
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 1.
  • 254
    • 77951439588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 255
    • 77951496215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text.
  • 256
    • 77951464447 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 34-37 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 34-37 and accompanying text.
  • 257
    • 77951496592 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see supra Part II. A.
    • see supra Part II. A.
  • 258
    • 77951432098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra text accompanying note 106
    • See supra text accompanying note 106.
  • 259
    • 77951480315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 1
    • CAT, supra note 191, art. 1.
  • 260
    • 77951449748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cf. supra text accompanying note 10
    • Cf. supra text accompanying note 10.
  • 261
    • 77951441404 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cf. supra text accompanying note 25
    • Cf. supra text accompanying note 25.
  • 262
    • 77951492635 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 12
    • See supra note 12.


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