-
1
-
-
77951446156
-
-
See infra text accompanying notes 8-10
-
See infra text accompanying notes 8-10.
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
3
-
-
77951480698
-
-
See infra Part II
-
See infra Part II.
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
77951494359
-
-
a 42
-
INA § 101 (a) (42)
-
INA
, pp. 101
-
-
-
5
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42).
-
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
6
-
-
77951493706
-
-
See infra Part III
-
See infra Part III.
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
77951455938
-
-
a 42
-
INA § 101 (a) (42)
-
INA
, pp. 101
-
-
-
8
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42).
-
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
9
-
-
77951454877
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
10
-
-
77951455221
-
-
range of terms for FGM reflects the corresponding range of opinions about the practice. Proponents of FGM, for example, often call the practice "female circumcision", which is a more clinical, less loaded term. Cf, available at, Conversely, the term "mutilation" "emphasizes the gravity of the act"
-
The range of terms for FGM reflects the corresponding range of opinions about the practice. Proponents of FGM, for example, often call the practice "female circumcision", which is a more clinical, less loaded term. Cf. WORLD HEALTH ORG., ELIMINATING FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: AN INTERAGENCY STATEMENT 22 (2008), available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/ 9789241596442-eng.pdf. Conversely, the term "mutilation" "emphasizes the gravity of the act"
-
(2008)
World Health Org., Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement
, pp. 22
-
-
-
11
-
-
77951441007
-
-
Id, As I believe that the practice violates the human rights of women who are involuntarily subjected to it, I use the term "female genital mutilation" or "FGM." For the terminology used by various international organizations
-
Id. at 3. As I believe that the practice violates the human rights of women who are involuntarily subjected to it, I use the term "female genital mutilation" or "FGM." For the terminology used by various international organizations
-
-
-
-
12
-
-
77951475494
-
-
see id
-
see id. at 22.
-
-
-
-
13
-
-
77951482769
-
-
See id, 4
-
See id. at 1, 4.
-
-
-
-
14
-
-
0003991827
-
-
See, Anika Rahman & Nahid Toubia eds., hereinafter FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION describing the role of FGM as a rite of passage in some communities
-
See FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: A GUIDE TO LAWS AND POLICIES WORLDWIDE 5 (Anika Rahman & Nahid Toubia eds., 2000) [hereinafter FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION] (describing the role of FGM as a rite of passage in some communities) ;
-
(2000)
Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide
, pp. 5
-
-
-
15
-
-
77951454700
-
-
supra note 8, explaining that some societies use FGM in coming-of-age rituals, to "raise a girl properly and to prepare her for adulthood and marriage", and that FGM is so firmly a part of the social structure that some girls "may desire to undergo the procedure as a result of social pressure from peers"
-
WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 5-6 (explaining that some societies use FGM in coming-of-age rituals, to "raise a girl properly and to prepare her for adulthood and marriage", and that FGM is so firmly a part of the social structure that some girls "may desire to undergo the procedure as a result of social pressure from peers") ;
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 5-6
-
-
-
16
-
-
4243617534
-
The ritual: Disfiguring, hurtful, wildly festive
-
see also, Jan. 31
-
see also Howard W. French, The Ritual: Disfiguring, Hurtful, Wildly Festive, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 31, 1997, at A4.
-
(1997)
N. Y. Times
-
-
French, H.W.1
-
18
-
-
84455196815
-
Area immigrants with wounds that won't heal: Mutilated women seek asylum in U. S.
-
Nov. 3
-
Pamela Constable, Area Immigrants with Wounds that Won't Heal: Mutilated Women Seek Asylum in U. S., WASH. POST, Nov. 3, 2008, at B1.
-
(2008)
Wash. Post
-
-
Constable, P.1
-
19
-
-
77951454700
-
-
See, supra note 8, "Female genital mutilation is mostly carried out on girls between the ages of 0 and 15 years. However, occasionally, adult and married women are also subjected to the procedure."
-
See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 4 ("Female genital mutilation is mostly carried out on girls between the ages of 0 and 15 years. However, occasionally, adult and married women are also subjected to the procedure.").
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 4
-
-
-
20
-
-
77951495449
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 1.
-
-
-
-
21
-
-
77951433623
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
22
-
-
0041320538
-
Individualizing justice through multiculturalism: The liberals'dilemma
-
1111
-
Doriane Lambelet Coleman, Individualizing Justice Through Multiculturalism: The Liberals'Dilemma, 96 COLUM. L. REV. 1093, 1111 (1996).
-
(1996)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.96
, pp. 1093
-
-
Coleman, D.L.1
-
23
-
-
77951454700
-
-
supra note 8, 4, 11 noting, for example, mat "babies born to women who have undergone female genital mutilation suffer a higher rate of neonatal death compared with babies born to women who have not undergone the procedure"
-
WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 1, 4, 11 (noting, for example, mat "babies born to women who have undergone female genital mutilation suffer a higher rate of neonatal death compared with babies born to women who have not undergone the procedure") ;
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 1
-
-
-
25
-
-
77951454700
-
-
supra note 8
-
WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 4.
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 4
-
-
-
26
-
-
77951473204
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
27
-
-
77951481623
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
77951487684
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
29
-
-
77951467066
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
30
-
-
0003991819
-
-
supra note 10, Some definitional difficulty still exists in this catch-all category
-
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION, supra note 10, at 8. Some definitional difficulty still exists in this catch-all category.
-
Female Genital Mutilation
, pp. 8
-
-
-
31
-
-
77951454700
-
-
See, supra note 8
-
See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 28.
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 28
-
-
-
32
-
-
77951491384
-
-
supra note 15
-
Coleman, supra note 15.
-
-
-
Coleman1
-
33
-
-
77951454700
-
-
See, supra note 8, noting that the health risks and complications "tend to be significantly more severe and prevalent the more extensive the procedure"
-
See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 11 (noting that the health risks and complications "tend to be significantly more severe and prevalent the more extensive the procedure").
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 11
-
-
-
34
-
-
77951492135
-
-
See id.
-
See id.;
-
-
-
-
35
-
-
77951488431
-
-
supra note 11
-
Constable, supra note 11.
-
-
-
Constable1
-
36
-
-
77951454700
-
-
See, supra note 8
-
See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 33.
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 33
-
-
-
37
-
-
77951427439
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 11;
-
-
-
-
38
-
-
0003991819
-
-
see also, supra note 10
-
see also FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION, supra note 10, at 7-9.
-
Female Genital Mutilation
, pp. 7-9
-
-
-
39
-
-
77951454700
-
-
See, supra note 8, Some women who have immigrated to the United States, France, and other countries have found surgeons who have been able to reverse some but not all of the physical consequences of FGM
-
See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 34-35. Some women who have immigrated to the United States, France, and other countries have found surgeons who have been able to reverse some (but not all) of the physical consequences of FGM.
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 34-35
-
-
-
40
-
-
77951482768
-
The kindest cut
-
See Eve Conant, Oct. 20, available at
-
See Eve Conant, The Kindest Cut, NEWSWEEK, Oct. 20, 2009, available at http://www.newsweek.com/id/218692/page/1.
-
(2009)
Newsweek
-
-
-
41
-
-
77951454700
-
-
See, supra note 8, discussing the dangers that FGM poses for childbirth
-
See WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 8, at 11 (discussing the dangers that FGM poses for childbirth).
-
World Health Org.
, pp. 11
-
-
-
42
-
-
77951480318
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
77951460587
-
-
See id, The WHO also provides a chart of the countries whose populations practice female genital mutilation and indicates the prevalence of FGM within each country
-
See id. at 4. The WHO also provides a chart of the countries whose populations practice female genital mutilation and indicates the prevalence of FGM within each country.
-
-
-
-
44
-
-
77951479579
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 29-30.
-
-
-
-
45
-
-
77951472120
-
-
a 42
-
INA § 101 (a) (42)
-
INA
, pp. 101
-
-
-
46
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
47
-
-
77951434012
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
49
-
-
77951477619
-
-
Prela v. Ashcroft, 518 7th Or
-
Prela v. Ashcroft, 394 F.3d 515, 518 (7th Or. 2005)
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.394
, pp. 515
-
-
-
50
-
-
77951486942
-
-
citing Asani v. INS, 723 7th Cir
-
(citing Asani v. INS, 154 F.3d 719, 723 (7th Cir. 1998)).
-
(1998)
F.3d
, vol.154
, pp. 719
-
-
-
51
-
-
77951456696
-
-
Mitev v. INS, 1331 7th Cir
-
Mitev v. INS, 67 F.3d 1325, 1331 (7th Cir. 1995).
-
(1995)
F.3d
, vol.67
, pp. 1325
-
-
-
52
-
-
84902633961
-
-
See Fatin v. INS, 1243 3d Cir, "'Persecution' is an extreme concept that does not include every sort of treatment our society regards as offensive."
-
See Fatin v. INS, 12 F.3d 1233, 1243 (3d Cir. 1993) ("'[P] ersecution' is an extreme concept that does not include every sort of treatment our society regards as offensive.").
-
(1993)
F.3d
, vol.12
, pp. 1233
-
-
-
53
-
-
77951451780
-
-
See, §, a 42
-
See INA § 101 (a) (42)
-
INA
, pp. 101
-
-
-
54
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42).
-
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
55
-
-
77951437882
-
-
See Dobrican v. INS, 167 7th Cir, "To show a 'well founded fear' a petitioner must demonstrate both that the fear is subjectively genuine and that it is reasonable in light of the objective credible evidence." citations omitted
-
See Dobrican v. INS, 77 F.3d 164, 167 (7th Cir. 1996) ("To show a 'well founded fear' a petitioner must demonstrate both that the fear is (subjectively) genuine and that it is reasonable in light of the (objective) credible evidence." (citations omitted)) ;
-
(1996)
F.3d
, vol.77
, pp. 164
-
-
-
56
-
-
77951486940
-
-
Castillo v. INS, 1121 9th Cir, "The determination that an alien has a wellfounded fear of persecution has both an objective and subjective component" citations omitted
-
Castillo v. INS, 951 F.2d 1117, 1121 (9th Cir. 1991) ("The determination that an alien has a wellfounded fear of persecution has both an objective and subjective component" (citations omitted)).
-
(1991)
F.2d
, vol.951
, pp. 1117
-
-
-
57
-
-
77951439953
-
-
See, "The subjective component requires a showing that the alien's fear is genuine."
-
See Castillo, 951 F.2d at 1121 ("The subjective component requires a showing that the alien's fear is genuine.").
-
F.2d
, vol.951
, pp. 1121
-
-
Castillo1
-
58
-
-
77951457968
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
59
-
-
77951473970
-
-
Diaz-Escobar v. INS, 1492 9th Cir
-
Diaz-Escobar v. INS, 782 F.2d 1488, 1492 (9th Cir. 1986).
-
(1986)
F.2d
, vol.782
, pp. 1488
-
-
-
60
-
-
77951443051
-
-
See, supra note 34, § 33.042 a ii
-
See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[2] [a] [ii].
-
-
-
Gordon1
-
61
-
-
77951459111
-
-
See, §§ 208.13 b 2 iii, 1208.12 b 2 iii
-
See 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.13 (b) (2) (iii), 1208.12 (b) (2) (iii) (2009) ;
-
(2009)
C. F. R.
, vol.8
-
-
-
62
-
-
77951454876
-
-
Ndom v. Ashcroft, 754 9th Cir, "We are... more likely to find that particular instances of past persecution experienced by an applicant were inflicted on account of a protected ground where similar acts are regularly experienced by others who share the applicant's protected affiliation. " citations omitted
-
Ndom v. Ashcroft, 384 F.3d 743, 754 (9th Cir. 2004) ("[W]e are... more likely to find that particular instances of past persecution experienced by an applicant were inflicted on account of a protected ground where similar acts are regularly experienced by others who share the applicant's protected affiliation. " (citations omitted)).
-
(2004)
F.3d
, vol.384
, pp. 743
-
-
-
63
-
-
77951466716
-
-
See, supra note 34, § 33.042 b i.
-
See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[2] [b] [i].
-
-
-
Gordon1
-
64
-
-
77951461733
-
-
See, §§ 208.13 b 1 i B, 1208.13 b 1 i B allowing an immigration judge to deny an asylum application if the government can show by a preponderance of the evidence that "t he applicant could avoid future persecution by relocating to another part of the applicant's country of nationality or, if stateless, another part of the applicant's country of last habitual residence, and under all the circumstances, it would be reasonable to expect the applicant to do so"
-
See 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.13 (b) (1) (i) (B), 1208.13 (b) (1) (i) (B) (allowing an immigration judge to deny an asylum application if the government can show by a preponderance of the evidence that "[t] he applicant could avoid future persecution by relocating to another part of the applicant's country of nationality or, if stateless, another part of the applicant's country of last habitual residence, and under all the circumstances, it would be reasonable to expect the applicant to do so").
-
C. F. R.
, vol.8
-
-
-
65
-
-
77951446923
-
-
re H-, 21 I. & N. Dec, 346, B. I. A.
-
In re H-, 21 I. & N. Dec. 337, 346 (B. I. A. 1996).
-
(1996)
, pp. 337
-
-
-
66
-
-
77951457074
-
-
208.13 b 1 iii, 1208.13 b 1 iii
-
8 C. F. R. §§ 208.13 (b) (1) (iii), 1208.13 (b) (1) (iii).
-
C. F. R.
, vol.8
-
-
-
67
-
-
77951482394
-
-
See supra note 33 and accompanying text
-
See supra note 33 and accompanying text
-
-
-
-
68
-
-
77951464855
-
-
a 42
-
INA § 101 (a) (42)
-
INA
, pp. 101
-
-
-
69
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
70
-
-
77951485825
-
-
REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-13, §, a 3 B i.
-
REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-13, § 101 (a) (3) (B) (i)
-
-
-
-
71
-
-
84888235199
-
-
302-03
-
Stat 302, 302-03.
-
Stat.
, vol.119
, pp. 302
-
-
-
72
-
-
77951454701
-
-
See In re Kasinga, 21 I. & N. Dec, 365, B. LA, noting that the persecutor's "subjective 'punitive' or 'malignant' intent is not required for harm to constitute persecution"
-
See In re Kasinga, 21 I. & N. Dec. 357, 365 (B. LA. 1996) (noting that the persecutor's "subjective 'punitive' or 'malignant' intent is not required for harm to constitute persecution").
-
(1996)
, pp. 357
-
-
-
73
-
-
77951438641
-
-
supra note 34, § 33.043
-
GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[3]
-
-
-
Gordon1
-
74
-
-
77951497319
-
-
citing Eduard v. Ashcroft, 192-93 5th Cir
-
(citing Eduard v. Ashcroft, 379 F.3d 182, 192-93 (5th Cir. 2004)).
-
(2004)
F.3d
, vol.379
, pp. 182
-
-
-
75
-
-
77951454875
-
-
See id. § 33.044ci
-
See id. § 33.04[4][c][i].
-
-
-
-
76
-
-
77951484319
-
-
re Acosta, 19 I. & N. Dec. 211, 233 B. I. A.
-
In re Acosta, 19 I. & N. Dec. 211, 233 (B. I. A 1985).
-
(1985)
-
-
-
77
-
-
77951489732
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
77951491387
-
-
supra note 34, § 33.044 ci
-
GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04[4] [c][i].
-
-
-
Gordon1
-
79
-
-
77951495448
-
-
Da Silva v. Ashcroft, 5 1st Cir, citations omitted
-
Da Silva v. Ashcroft 394 F.3d 1, 5 (1st Cir. 2005) (citations omitted).
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.394
, pp. 1
-
-
-
80
-
-
77951471792
-
-
Id. citations omitted
-
Id. (citations omitted).
-
-
-
-
81
-
-
77951474331
-
-
See In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec, 959 B. I. A.
-
See In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 951, 959 (B. I. A. 2006)
-
(2006)
, pp. 951
-
-
-
82
-
-
84954203748
-
-
aff'd sub nom. Castillo-Arias v. U. S. Att'y Gen., 11th Cir
-
aff'd sub nom. Castillo-Arias v. U. S. Att'y Gen., 446 F.3d 1190 (11th Cir. 2006) ;
-
(2006)
F.3d
, vol.446
, pp. 1190
-
-
-
83
-
-
77951451779
-
-
see also In re A-M-E-&J-G-U-, 241. & N. Dec, 74-75 B. I. A, holding that "affluent Guatemalans" are not members of a particular social group because they lack visibility as a group
-
see also In re A-M-E-&J-G-U-, 241. & N. Dec. 69, 74-75 (B. I. A 2007) (holding that "affluent Guatemalans" are not members of a particular social group because they lack visibility as a group).
-
(2007)
, pp. 69
-
-
-
84
-
-
77951449038
-
-
re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec
-
In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 959.
-
-
-
-
85
-
-
84954210690
-
-
See, e.g., Sanchez-Trujillo v. INS, 1577 9th Cir, "Major segments of the population of an embattled nation, even though undoubtedly at some risk from general political violence, will rarely, if ever, constitute a distinct 'social group' for the purposes of establishing refugee status. To hold otherwise would be tantamount to extending refugee status to every alien displaced by general conditions of unrest or violence in his or her home country."
-
See, e.g., Sanchez-Trujillo v. INS, 801 F.2d 1571, 1577 (9th Cir. 1986) ("Major segments of the population of an embattled nation, even though undoubtedly at some risk from general political violence, will rarely, if ever, constitute a distinct 'social group' for the purposes of establishing refugee status. To hold otherwise would be tantamount to extending refugee status to every alien displaced by general conditions of unrest or violence in his or her home country.").
-
(1986)
F.2d
, vol.801
, pp. 1571
-
-
-
86
-
-
84954239613
-
-
See Hong Ying Gao v. Gonzales, 70 2d Cir
-
See Hong Ying Gao v. Gonzales, 440 F.3d 62, 70 (2d Cir. 2006).
-
(2006)
F.3d
, vol.440
, pp. 62
-
-
-
87
-
-
77951446155
-
-
See, e.g., Fisher v. INS, 963 9th Cir, holding that because the applicant had "demonstrated only discrimination on account of her sex", she was not eligible for relief
-
See, e.g., Fisher v. INS, 79 F.3d 955, 963 (9th Cir. 1996) (holding that because the applicant had "demonstrated only discrimination on account of her sex", she was not eligible for relief).
-
(1996)
F.3d
, vol.79
, pp. 955
-
-
-
88
-
-
84902633961
-
-
But see Fatin v. INS, 1241 3d Cir, holding that "Iranian women who refuse to conform to the government's gender-specific laws and social norms" may constitute a particular social group emphasis omitted
-
But see Fatin v. INS, 12 F.3d 1233, 1241 (3d Cir. 1993) (holding that "Iranian women who refuse to conform to the government's gender-specific laws and social norms" may constitute a particular social group (emphasis omitted)).
-
(1993)
F.3d
, vol.12
, pp. 1233
-
-
-
89
-
-
84865153192
-
-
See Lukwago v. Ashcroft, 172 3d Cir, "A 'particular social group' must exist independently of the persecution suffered by the applicant for asylum."
-
See Lukwago v. Ashcroft, 329 F.3d 157, 172 (3d Cir. 2003) ("[A] 'particular social group' must exist independently of the persecution suffered by the applicant for asylum.").
-
(2003)
F.3d
, vol.329
, pp. 157
-
-
-
90
-
-
77951452509
-
-
21 I. & N. Dec, B. I. A.
-
21 I. & N. Dec. 357 (B. I. A 1996).
-
(1996)
, pp. 357
-
-
-
91
-
-
77951441405
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 358.
-
-
-
-
92
-
-
77951461347
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
93
-
-
77951465979
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
94
-
-
77951480697
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 368.
-
-
-
-
95
-
-
77951486941
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
96
-
-
77951478005
-
-
Id, "The particular social group is defined by common characteristics that members of the group either cannot change, or should not be required to change because such characteristics are fundamental to their individual identities."
-
Id. at 366 ("[T]he particular social group is defined by common characteristics that members of the group either cannot change, or should not be required to change because such characteristics are fundamental to their individual identities.").
-
-
-
-
97
-
-
77951496595
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
98
-
-
77951488430
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 358.
-
-
-
-
99
-
-
84900817311
-
-
10th Cir
-
422 F.3d 1187 (10th Cir. 2005).
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.422
, pp. 1187
-
-
-
100
-
-
77951464854
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 1199.
-
-
-
-
101
-
-
77951468534
-
-
See id, finding it noteworthy that "Kasinga's explanation provides no reason why more than gender or tribal membership would be required to identify a social group", although including opposition to FGM as part of the definition would not harm the applicant's claim
-
See id. at 1200 (finding it noteworthy that "Kasinga's explanation provides no reason why more than gender or tribal membership would be required to identify a social group", although including opposition to FGM as part of the definition would not harm the applicant's claim).
-
-
-
-
102
-
-
77951446924
-
-
9th Cir
-
400 F.3d 785 (9th Cir. 2005).
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.400
, pp. 785
-
-
-
103
-
-
77951443050
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 800.
-
-
-
-
104
-
-
77951495891
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
105
-
-
84900817311
-
-
See, e.g., Niang v. Gonzales, 1202 10th Cir, "Once one discredits... the threats of future harm... one could rationally decide that she had failed to show that if she returned... she would be killed or otherwise subjected to torture."
-
See, e.g., Niang v. Gonzales, 422 F.3d 1187, 1202 (10th Cir. 2005) ("Once one discredits... the threats of future harm... one could rationally decide that she had failed to show that if she returned... she would be killed or otherwise subjected to torture.") ;
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.422
, pp. 1187
-
-
-
106
-
-
77951458745
-
-
Oforji v. Ashcroft, 613 7th Cir, noting that an asylum applicant can show that she has "suffered past persecution on account of one of the enumerated categories, creating a rebuttable presumption of future persecution"
-
Oforji v. Ashcroft, 354 F.3d 609, 613 (7th Cir. 2003) (noting that an asylum applicant can show that she has "suffered past persecution on account of one of the enumerated categories, creating a rebuttable presumption of future persecution") ;
-
(2003)
F.3d
, vol.354
, pp. 609
-
-
-
107
-
-
77951462462
-
-
Seifu v. Ashcroft, 323-24 5th Cir, noting that the act of FGM is "the very fundamental change required to rebut the presumption of persecution created by the showing of past persecution"
-
Seifu v. Ashcroft, 80 F. App'x. 323, 323-24 (5th Cir. 2003) (noting that the act of FGM is "the very fundamental change required to rebut the presumption of persecution created by the showing of past persecution").
-
(2003)
F. App'x
, vol.80
, pp. 323
-
-
-
108
-
-
77951452508
-
-
B. I. A.
-
24 I. & N. Dec. 296 (B. I. A. 2007)
-
(2007)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 296
-
-
-
109
-
-
77951449399
-
-
vacated, Op. Att'y Gen
-
vacated, 24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008).
-
(2008)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 617
-
-
-
110
-
-
77951457808
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 296.
-
-
-
-
111
-
-
77951469263
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 299.
-
-
-
-
112
-
-
77951472119
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
113
-
-
77951461734
-
-
See id, The BIA had previously held that forced sterilization was a form of continuing persecution
-
See id. at 299-300. The BIA had previously held that forced sterilization was a form of continuing persecution.
-
-
-
-
114
-
-
77951436783
-
-
See In reY-T-L-, B. I. A.
-
See In reY-T-L-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 601 (B. I. A. 2003).
-
(2003)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.23
, pp. 601
-
-
-
115
-
-
78649915608
-
-
See INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42, "For purposes of determinations under tins chapter, a person who has been forced. to undergo involuntary sterilization, or who has been persecuted for failure or refusal to undergo such a procedure..., shall be deemed to have been persecuted on account of political opinion, and a person who has a well founded fear that he or she will be forced to undergo such a procedure or subject to persecution for such failure, refusal, or resistance shall be deemed to have a well founded fear of persecution on account of political opinion. "
-
See INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006) ("For purposes of determinations under tins chapter, a person who has been forced... to undergo involuntary sterilization, or who has been persecuted for failure or refusal to undergo such a procedure..., shall be deemed to have been persecuted on account of political opinion, and a person who has a well founded fear that he or she will be forced to undergo such a procedure or subject to persecution for such failure, refusal, or resistance shall be deemed to have a well founded fear of persecution on account of political opinion. ").
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
116
-
-
77951462828
-
-
See In re A-T-, at, "FGM is similar to forced sterilization in the sense that it is a harm that is normally performed only once but has ongoing physical and emotional effects."
-
See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 300 ("FGM is similar to forced sterilization in the sense that it is a harm that is normally performed only once but has ongoing physical and emotional effects....").
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 300
-
-
-
117
-
-
77951461346
-
-
See id. "Congress has not seen fit to recognize FGM... in similar fashion with special statutory provisions."
-
See id. ("Congress has not seen fit to recognize FGM... in similar fashion with special statutory provisions.").
-
-
-
-
118
-
-
84994108365
-
-
2d Cir
-
529 F.3d 99 (2d Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F.3d
, vol.529
, pp. 99
-
-
-
119
-
-
77951481288
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 114.
-
-
-
-
120
-
-
77951474747
-
-
See id. putting "the burden on the government to show that these particular petitioners are not at risk of further mutilation"
-
See id. (putting "the burden on the government to show that these particular petitioners are not at risk of further mutilation").
-
-
-
-
121
-
-
77951432525
-
-
Id, "Nothing in the regulation suggests that the future threats to life or freedom must come in the same form or be the same act as the past persecution. "
-
Id. at 115-16 ("Nothing in the regulation suggests that the future threats to life or freedom must come in the same form or be the same act as the past persecution. ").
-
-
-
-
122
-
-
77951478647
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 116.
-
-
-
-
123
-
-
77951449399
-
-
Op. Att'y Gen
-
24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008).
-
(2008)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 617
-
-
-
124
-
-
77951440323
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 621-23.
-
-
-
-
125
-
-
77951443048
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 624;
-
-
-
-
126
-
-
77951496594
-
-
see also, §, b 1 i.
-
see also 8 C. F. R. § 1208.16 (b) (1) (i) (2009).
-
(2009)
C. F. R.
, vol.8
, pp. 120816
-
-
-
127
-
-
77951494080
-
-
re A-T-, at
-
In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 624;
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 624
-
-
-
128
-
-
77951494713
-
-
see also, §, b 1 i A-B, ii
-
see also 8 C. F. R. § 1208.16 (b) (1) (i) (A)-(B), (ii).
-
C. F. R.
, vol.8
, pp. 120816
-
-
-
129
-
-
77951494080
-
-
See In re A-T-, at
-
See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 624;
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 624
-
-
-
130
-
-
77951494713
-
-
see also, §, b 1 iii
-
see also 8 C. F. R. § 1208.16 (b) (1) (iii).
-
C. F. R.
, vol.8
, pp. 120816
-
-
-
131
-
-
77951491770
-
-
See supra Part I.
-
See supra Part I.
-
-
-
-
132
-
-
0000978146
-
The influence of cultural relativism on international human rights law: Female circumcision as a case study
-
See, e.g., 396, "If all cultures are equally valid, on what authority can the human rights system evaluate these practices?"
-
See, e.g., Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQUALITY 367, 396 (1989) ("If all cultures are equally valid, on what authority can the human rights system evaluate these practices?").
-
(1989)
Law & Inequality
, vol.7
, pp. 367
-
-
Brennan, K.1
-
133
-
-
84994108365
-
-
2d Cir
-
529 F.3d 99 (2d Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F.3d
, vol.529
, pp. 99
-
-
-
134
-
-
77951449399
-
-
Op. Att'y Gen
-
24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008).
-
(2008)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 617
-
-
-
135
-
-
77951470681
-
-
See supra text accompanying notes 90-99
-
See supra text accompanying notes 90-99.
-
-
-
-
136
-
-
84994192248
-
-
See In re A-T-, at, referring to a case in which the BIA granted humanitarian asylum to "two women who had suffered female genital mutilation multiple times"
-
See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 621 (referring to a case in which the BIA granted humanitarian asylum to "two women who had suffered female genital mutilation multiple times"
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 621
-
-
-
137
-
-
84954226931
-
-
citing In re S-A-K-& H-A-H-, 465 B. I. A.
-
(citing In re S-A-K-& H-A-H-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 464, 465 (B. I. A 2008))) ;
-
(2008)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 464
-
-
-
140
-
-
77951483798
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 20-39.
-
-
-
-
141
-
-
77951470679
-
-
See, e.g, Beskovic v. Gonzales, 2d Cir, "A 'minor beating" or... any physical degradation designed to cause pain, humiliation, or other suffering, may rise to the level of persecution if it occurred in the context of an arrest or detention on the basis of a protected ground." citation omitted
-
See, e.g, Beskovic v. Gonzales, 467 F.3d 223 (2d Cir. 2006) ("[A] 'minor beating" or... any physical degradation designed to cause pain, humiliation, or other suffering, may rise to the level of persecution if it occurred in the context of an arrest or detention on the basis of a protected ground." (citation omitted)).
-
(2006)
F.3d
, vol.467
, pp. 223
-
-
-
142
-
-
77951496591
-
-
See, e.g., Makhoul v. Ashcroft, 80 1st Cir, "As a theoretical matter, we acknowledge that, under the right set of circumstances, a finding of past persecution might rest on a showing of psychological harm." citations omitted
-
See, e.g., Makhoul v. Ashcroft, 387 F.3d 75, 80 (1st Cir. 2004) ("As a theoretical matter, we acknowledge that, under the right set of circumstances, a finding of past persecution might rest on a showing of psychological harm." (citations omitted)) ;
-
(2004)
F.3d
, vol.387
, pp. 75
-
-
-
143
-
-
84938092373
-
-
Kovac v. INS, 104, 106-07 9th Cir, reasoning that the asylum applicant's inability to "earn a decent living to support his family" because of discrimination may constitute persecution sufficient for asylum internal quotation marks omitted
-
Kovac v. INS, 407 F.2d 102, 104, 106-07 (9th Cir. 1969) (reasoning that the asylum applicant's inability to "earn a decent living to support [his] family" because of discrimination may constitute persecution sufficient for asylum (internal quotation marks omitted)).
-
(1969)
F.2d
, vol.407
, pp. 102
-
-
-
144
-
-
78649915608
-
-
See INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42
-
See INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
145
-
-
77951483796
-
-
See supra text accompanying note 56
-
See supra text accompanying note 56.
-
-
-
-
146
-
-
77951432524
-
-
See supra note 105 and accompanying text
-
See supra note 105 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
147
-
-
77951438639
-
-
See supra text accompanying notes 56-59
-
See supra text accompanying notes 56-59.
-
-
-
-
148
-
-
77951458744
-
-
See supra text accompanying notes 62-65
-
See supra text accompanying notes 62-65.
-
-
-
-
149
-
-
77951491025
-
-
See supra text accompanying notes 60-61
-
See supra text accompanying notes 60-61.
-
-
-
-
150
-
-
77951475880
-
-
2d Cir
-
947 F.2d 660 (2d Cir. 1991).
-
(1991)
F.2d
, vol.947
, pp. 660
-
-
-
151
-
-
77951437515
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 663-64.
-
-
-
-
152
-
-
77951481625
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 664.
-
-
-
-
153
-
-
84954239613
-
-
2d Cir
-
440 F.3d 62 (2d Cir. 2006)
-
(2006)
F.3d
, vol.440
, pp. 62
-
-
-
154
-
-
77951469261
-
-
vacated, Keisler v. Hong Yin Gao
-
vacated, Keisler v. Hong Yin Gao, 128 S. Ct 345 (2007).
-
(2007)
S. Ct
, vol.128
, pp. 345
-
-
-
155
-
-
77951441786
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 64.
-
-
-
-
156
-
-
84954208985
-
-
B. I. A.
-
23 I. & N. Dec. 951 (B. I. A. 2006).
-
(2006)
I. & N. Dec
, vol.23
, pp. 951
-
-
-
157
-
-
77951479387
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 959-60.
-
-
-
-
158
-
-
77951477264
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 956.
-
-
-
-
159
-
-
77951467821
-
-
See generally UNHCR, ¶¶, U. N. Doc. HCR/GIP/02/02 May 7, hereinafter UNHCR Guidelines, available at, discussing its standard in defining the factors that constitute "membership of a particular social group"
-
See generally UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection: "Membership of a Particular Social Group" Within the Context of Article 1A (2) of the 1951 Convention and/or Its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, ¶¶ 10-23, U. N. Doc. HCR/GIP/02/02 (May 7, 2002) [hereinafter UNHCR Guidelines], available at http://www.unhcr.org/3d58de2da. html (discussing its standard in defining the factors that constitute "membership of a particular social group").
-
(2002)
Guidelines on International Protection: "Membership of a Particular Social Group" Within and Context of Article 1A (2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees
, pp. 10-23
-
-
-
160
-
-
77951435960
-
-
UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶, emphasis omitted
-
UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶ 11 (emphasis omitted).
-
-
-
-
161
-
-
77951450441
-
-
see In re C-A-, at
-
see In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 956.
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.23
, pp. 956
-
-
-
162
-
-
77951483448
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 960;
-
-
-
-
163
-
-
77951430688
-
-
UNCHR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶, "A social group cannot be defined exclusively by the fact that it is targeted for persecution although. persecution may be a relevant element in determining the visibility of a particular social group." emphasis omitted
-
UNCHR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶ 2 ("[A] social group cannot be defined exclusively by the fact that it is targeted for persecution (although... persecution may be a relevant element in determining the visibility of a particular social group)." (emphasis omitted)).
-
-
-
-
164
-
-
77951491385
-
-
UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶
-
UNHCR Guidelines, supra note 123, ¶ 11.
-
-
-
-
165
-
-
77951450441
-
-
See In re C-A-, at, 959-60 claiming that the UNHCR Guidelines adopted "the Second Circuit's 'social perception' approach" and later referring to this requirement as "social visibility"
-
See In re C-A-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 956, 959-60 (claiming that the UNHCR Guidelines adopted "the Second Circuit's 'social perception' approach" and later referring to this requirement as "social visibility").
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.23
, pp. 956
-
-
-
166
-
-
84954231951
-
-
B. I. A.
-
24 I. & N. Dec. 69 (B. I. A. 2007)
-
(2007)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 69
-
-
-
167
-
-
77951488077
-
Aff'd sub nam
-
Ucelo-Gomez v. Mukasey, 2d Cir
-
aff'd sub nam. Ucelo-Gomez v. Mukasey, 509 F.3d 70 (2d Cir. 2007).
-
(2007)
F.3d
, vol.509
, pp. 70
-
-
-
168
-
-
77951494358
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 69.
-
-
-
-
169
-
-
77951443049
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 75.
-
-
-
-
170
-
-
84865143734
-
-
9th Cir
-
542 F.3d 738 (9th Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F.3d
, vol.542
, pp. 738
-
-
-
171
-
-
77951486178
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 745;
-
-
-
-
172
-
-
77951442701
-
-
see also Xiang Ming Jiang v. Mukasey, 168 2d Cir, holding that "people who are targeted for gang violence because they are caught between rival criminal gangs but are not protected by police in China" do not constitute a particular social group for asylum purposes
-
see also Xiang Ming Jiang v. Mukasey, 296 F. App'x 166, 168 (2d Cir. 2008) (holding that "people who are targeted for gang violence because they are caught between rival criminal gangs but are not protected by police in China" do not constitute a particular social group for asylum purposes) ;
-
(2008)
F. App'x
, vol.296
, pp. 166
-
-
-
173
-
-
77951451182
-
-
In re E-A-G-, 594 B. I. A, holding that the group "persons resistant to gang membership" does not constitute a particular social group
-
In re E-A-G-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 591, 594 (B. I. A. 2008) (holding that the group "persons resistant to gang membership" does not constitute a particular social group).
-
(2008)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 591
-
-
-
174
-
-
84954204907
-
-
8th Cir
-
531 F.3d 624 (8th Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F.3d
, vol.531
, pp. 624
-
-
-
175
-
-
77951429958
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 629.
-
-
-
-
176
-
-
77951483797
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
177
-
-
77951494714
-
-
For other decisions rejecting the applicant's proposed social group, see Umoeka v. Att'y Gen., 739 3d Cir, holding that "perceived police informants" did not constitute a particular social group
-
For other decisions rejecting the applicant's proposed social group, see Umoeka v. Att'y Gen., 294 F. App'x 736, 739 (3d Cir. 2008) (holding that "perceived police informants" did not constitute a particular social group) ;
-
(2008)
F. App'x
, vol.294
, pp. 736
-
-
-
178
-
-
77951431389
-
-
Kholyavskiy v. Mukasey, 572 7th Cir, holding that "the mentally ill" and "Jewish refugees who resettled in the United States" are not particular social groups
-
Kholyavskiy v. Mukasey, 540 F.3d 555, 572 (7th Cir. 2008) (holding that "the mentally ill" and "Jewish refugees who resettled in the United States" are not particular social groups) ;
-
(2008)
F.3d
, vol.540
, pp. 555
-
-
-
179
-
-
77951452508
-
-
In re A-T-, 303 B. I. A, expressing doubt that "young Bambara women who oppose arranged marriage have the kind of social visibility that would make them readily identifiable to those who would be inclined to persecute them" citation omitted
-
In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296, 303 (B. I. A. 2007) (expressing doubt that "young Bambara women who oppose arranged marriage have the kind of social visibility that would make them readily identifiable to those who would be inclined to persecute them" (citation omitted)).
-
(2007)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 296
-
-
-
180
-
-
77951492136
-
-
See supra Part V. A.
-
See supra Part V. A.
-
-
-
-
182
-
-
84954207982
-
-
See, e.g., In re Kasinga, 358 B. I. A, explaining that, after her father died, the applicant's relatives wanted to subject her to FGM
-
See, e.g., In re Kasinga, 21 I. & N. Dec. 357, 358 (B. I. A. 1996) (explaining that, after her father died, the applicant's relatives wanted to subject her to FGM).
-
(1996)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.21
, pp. 357
-
-
-
183
-
-
77951497318
-
-
See supra notes 129-31 and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 129-31 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
184
-
-
77951489731
-
-
See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
185
-
-
77951427438
-
-
See, supra note 34, §, 2 explaining that "economic disadvantage alone will not suffice" to constitute persecution
-
See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.04 [2] (explaining that "economic disadvantage alone will not suffice" to constitute persecution).
-
-
-
Gordon1
-
186
-
-
77951463184
-
-
See supra notes 132-33 and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 132-33 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
187
-
-
84865143734
-
-
See, 746 9th Cir
-
See 542 F.3d 738, 746 (9th Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F.3d
, vol.542
, pp. 738
-
-
-
188
-
-
84954231951
-
-
See, 73 B. I. A.
-
See 24 I. & N. Dec. 69, 73 (B. I. A. 2007).
-
(2007)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 69
-
-
-
189
-
-
77951438640
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
190
-
-
77951490087
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 73-74.
-
-
-
-
191
-
-
77951491386
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 74-75.
-
-
-
-
192
-
-
77951481070
-
-
Id, "In this regard, we would not expect divestiture when considering wealth as a characteristic on which a social group might be based."
-
Id. at 73-74 ("In this regard, we would not expect divestiture when considering wealth as a characteristic on which a social group might be based.").
-
-
-
-
193
-
-
77951485448
-
-
See supra notes 129-31, and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 129-31, 146-49 and accompanying text
-
-
-
-
194
-
-
77951438251
-
-
See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 134-36 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
195
-
-
78649915608
-
-
ina § 101 a 42, §, a 42
-
ina § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
196
-
-
77951436783
-
-
B. I. A.
-
23 I. & N. Dec. 601 (B. I. A. 2003).
-
(2003)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.23
, pp. 601
-
-
-
197
-
-
77951468181
-
-
its decision, the BIA relied on an earlier case, In re C-Y-Z-, B. I. A.
-
In its decision, the BIA relied on an earlier case, In re C-Y-Z-, 21 I. & N. Dec. 915 (B. I. A. 1997).
-
(1997)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.21
, pp. 915
-
-
-
198
-
-
77951479014
-
-
See, In re Y-T-L-, at
-
See In re Y-T-L-, 23 I. & N. Dec. at 602.
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.23
, pp. 602
-
-
-
199
-
-
77951496955
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
200
-
-
77951450087
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
201
-
-
77951442133
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 607.
-
-
-
-
202
-
-
77951468182
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 605-07.
-
-
-
-
203
-
-
77951476915
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 605-08.
-
-
-
-
204
-
-
77951451538
-
-
9th Cir
-
399 F.3d 1195 (9th Cir. 2005).
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.399
, pp. 1195
-
-
-
205
-
-
77951434779
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 1197.
-
-
-
-
206
-
-
77951462827
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
207
-
-
77951473202
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
208
-
-
77951443802
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
209
-
-
77951451777
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 1203.
-
-
-
-
210
-
-
77951457807
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 1202-03.
-
-
-
-
211
-
-
77951496593
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 1203.
-
-
-
-
212
-
-
77951446924
-
-
9th Cir
-
400 F.3d 785 (9th Cir. 2005).
-
(2005)
F.3d
, vol.400
, pp. 785
-
-
-
213
-
-
77951489729
-
-
See generally supra text accompanying notes 78-80
-
See generally supra text accompanying notes 78-80.
-
-
-
-
214
-
-
77951447660
-
-
400 F.3d at 800.
-
F.3d
, vol.400
, pp. 800
-
-
-
215
-
-
77951452508
-
-
B. I. A.
-
24 I. & N. Dec. 296 (B. I. A. 2007).
-
(2007)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 296
-
-
-
216
-
-
77951451539
-
-
See generally supra text accompanying notes 82-89. Although the Attorney General recently vacated this case
-
See generally supra text accompanying notes 82-89. Although the Attorney General recently vacated this case
-
-
-
-
217
-
-
77951449399
-
-
see, Op. Att'y Gen, In re A-T-represents the BIA's response to an analogy between FGM and forced sterilization
-
see 24 I. & N. Dec. 617 (Op. Att'y Gen. 2008), In re A-T-represents the BIA's response to an analogy between FGM and forced sterilization.
-
(2008)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 617
-
-
-
218
-
-
77951462828
-
-
See In re A-T-, at
-
See In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 300.
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 300
-
-
-
219
-
-
77951467067
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
220
-
-
77951475493
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
221
-
-
77951478299
-
-
6th Cir
-
268 F. App'x 373 (6th Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F. App'x
, vol.268
, pp. 373
-
-
-
222
-
-
77951471035
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 374-75.
-
-
-
-
223
-
-
77951469260
-
-
Id
-
Id. at 380
-
-
-
-
224
-
-
78649915608
-
-
citing INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42
-
(citing INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006) ;
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
225
-
-
84900811075
-
-
Hassan v. Gonzales, 518, 8th Cir
-
Hassan v. Gonzales, 484 F.3d 513, 518 (8th Cir. 2007) ;
-
(2007)
F.3d
, vol.484
, pp. 513
-
-
-
226
-
-
77951482767
-
-
In re A-T
-
In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296).
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 296
-
-
-
227
-
-
77951478298
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
228
-
-
77951491026
-
-
id. emphasis added
-
id. (emphasis added).
-
-
-
-
229
-
-
77951484318
-
-
See id
-
See id.
-
-
-
-
230
-
-
77951482767
-
-
citing In re A-T
-
(citing In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296).
-
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 296
-
-
-
231
-
-
77951430689
-
-
gee supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text
-
gee supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
232
-
-
77951437152
-
-
See supra text accompanying note 28
-
See supra text accompanying note 28.
-
-
-
-
233
-
-
77951428892
-
-
Cf. supra text accompanying note 107
-
Cf. supra text accompanying note 107.
-
-
-
-
234
-
-
77951466346
-
-
See supra text accompanying notes 168-69
-
See supra text accompanying notes 168-69.
-
-
-
-
235
-
-
77951457447
-
-
See supra text accompanying notes 170-79
-
See supra text accompanying notes 170-79.
-
-
-
-
236
-
-
78649915608
-
-
See INA § 101 a 42, §, a 42
-
See INA § 101 (a) (42), 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
237
-
-
77951434009
-
-
see supra Part II. B.
-
see supra Part II. B.
-
-
-
-
238
-
-
77951478299
-
-
6th Cir
-
268 F. App'x 373 (6th Cir. 2008).
-
(2008)
F. App'x
, vol.268
, pp. 373
-
-
-
239
-
-
77951473203
-
-
See id
-
See id. at 380
-
-
-
-
240
-
-
77951452508
-
-
citing In re A-T-, B. I. A.
-
(citing In re A-T-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 296 (B. I. A. 2007)) ;
-
(2007)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.24
, pp. 296
-
-
-
241
-
-
77951436783
-
-
see also In re Y-T-L-, B. I. A.
-
see also In re Y-T-L-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 601 (B. I. A 2003).
-
(2003)
I. & N. Dec.
, vol.23
, pp. 601
-
-
-
242
-
-
77951450818
-
-
See, at
-
See Diallo, 268 F. App'x at 380.
-
F. App'x
, vol.268
, pp. 380
-
-
Diallo1
-
243
-
-
77951477263
-
-
See supra Part II. A.
-
See supra Part II. A.
-
-
-
-
244
-
-
77951456316
-
-
G. A. Res. 39/46, 51 Dec. 10, hereinafter CAT
-
G. A. Res. 39/46, 39 U. N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, U. N. Doc. A/39/51 (Dec. 10, 1984) [hereinafter CAT].
-
(1984)
U. N. Gaor, 39Th Sess., Supp. No. 51, U. N. Doc. A
, vol.39
, pp. 39
-
-
-
245
-
-
77951437514
-
-
See, supra note 34, § 33.102
-
See GORDON ET AL., supra note 34, § 33.10[2].
-
-
-
Gordon1
-
246
-
-
2442738935
-
-
See Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of, Pub. L. No. 105-277, § 2242, 2822
-
See Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-277, § 2242, 112 Stat 2681, 2822.
-
(1998)
Stat.
, vol.112
, pp. 2681
-
-
-
247
-
-
77951429244
-
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 3
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 3.
-
-
-
-
248
-
-
77951474767
-
-
See id. requiring that an individual must believe "that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture" emphasis added
-
See id. (requiring that an individual must believe "that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture" (emphasis added)).
-
-
-
-
249
-
-
78649915608
-
-
a 42
-
8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (42) (2006).
-
(2006)
U. S. C.
, vol.8
, pp. 1101
-
-
-
250
-
-
77951470680
-
-
See supra text accompanying note 45
-
See supra text accompanying note 45.
-
-
-
-
251
-
-
77951458743
-
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 1
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 1;
-
-
-
-
252
-
-
77951428127
-
-
see also, §§ 208.18 a 1, 1208.18 a 1, incorporating CAT's definition of torture
-
see also 8 C. F. R. §§ 208.18 (a) (1), 1208.18 (a) (1) (2009) (incorporating CAT's definition of torture).
-
(2009)
C. F. R.
, vol.8
-
-
-
253
-
-
77951452850
-
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 1
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 1.
-
-
-
-
254
-
-
77951439588
-
-
Id
-
Id.
-
-
-
-
255
-
-
77951496215
-
-
See supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 24-30 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
256
-
-
77951464447
-
-
See supra notes 34-37 and accompanying text
-
See supra notes 34-37 and accompanying text.
-
-
-
-
257
-
-
77951496592
-
-
see supra Part II. A.
-
see supra Part II. A.
-
-
-
-
258
-
-
77951432098
-
-
See supra text accompanying note 106
-
See supra text accompanying note 106.
-
-
-
-
259
-
-
77951480315
-
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 1
-
CAT, supra note 191, art. 1.
-
-
-
-
260
-
-
77951449748
-
-
Cf. supra text accompanying note 10
-
Cf. supra text accompanying note 10.
-
-
-
-
261
-
-
77951441404
-
-
Cf. supra text accompanying note 25
-
Cf. supra text accompanying note 25.
-
-
-
-
262
-
-
77951492635
-
-
See supra note 12
-
See supra note 12.
-
-
-
|