The meaning of torture

Polity

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 131-155

  Kenny, Paul D ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Pain; Sadism; Suffering; Torture; Violence

Indexed keywords

EID: 77949794880     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: 17441684     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1057/pol.2009.21     Document Type: Article

References (217)

1. Malise Ruthven, Torture: The Grand Conspiracy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978);
2. Daniel Pratt Mannix, The History of Torture (Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 2003).
3. On the institutionalization of torture in the twentieth century, see Alfred W. McCoy, A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror, 1st ed. (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006);
4. Michael Otterman, American Torture: From the Cold War to Abu Ghraib and Beyond (Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2007);
5. Darius M. Rejali, Torture and Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).
6. John H. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof: Europe and England in the Ancient Régime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977);
7. Edward Peters, Torture, expanded ed. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996);
8. Lisa Silverman, Tortured Subjects: Pain, Truth, and the Body in Early Modern France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
9. Michael Davis, "The Moral Justification of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment," The International Journal of Applied Philosophy 19 (2005): 161-178
10. Mary R. Jackman, "Violence in Social Life," Annual Reviews in Sociology 28 (2002): 387-415.
11. For example, Seumas Miller, "Is Torture Ever Morally Justifiable?" International Journal of Applied Philosophy 19 (2005): 179-92;
12. David Sussman, "Defining Torture," Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 37 (2005): 225-30;
13. Richard Matthews, The Absolute Violation: Why Torture Must Be Prohibited (Montréal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2008), ch. 1;
14. Jessica Wolfendale, "The Myth Of 'Torture Lite'," Ethics & International Affairs 23 (2009): 47-61.
15. Peter Morriss, Power: A Philosophical Analysis, 2nd ed. (New York: Manchester University Press, 2002).
16. Bob Brecher, Torture and the Ticking Bomb (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), 3.
17. Peters, Torture, 154.
18. W. B. Gallie, "Essentially Contested Concepts," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 56 (1955): 167-198
19. David Tall and Shlomo Vinner, "Concept Image and Concept Definition in Mathematics with Particular Reference to Limits and Continuity," Educational Studies in Mathematics 12 (1981): 151-169
20. Tall and Vinner, "Concept Image," 152.
21. Kate Zernike, "Word for Word / a Fine Line; Defining Torture: Russian Roulette, Yes. Mind-Altering Drugs, Maybe," The New York Times, June 27, 2004;
22. Jack L. Goldsmith, The Terror Presidency: Law and Judgment inside the Bush Administration, 1st ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007);
23. Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals, 1st ed. (New York: Doubleday, 2008).
24. Brecher, Torture and the Ticking Bomb, 5.
25. Slavoj Zižek, Welcome to the Desert of the Real!: Five Essays on 11 September and Related Dates (London: Verso, 2002).
26. Nuel Belnap, "On Rigorous Definitions," Philosophical Studies 72 (1993): 119, emphasis in original.
27. Gerring, "What Makes a Concept Good?"
28. Comprehensive collections of these documents can be found in Karen J. Greenberg and Joshua L. Dratel, eds., The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005);
29. Jameel Jaffer and Amrit Singh, Administration of Torture: A Documentary Record from Washington to Abu Ghraib and Beyond (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).
30. Michael Levin, "The Case for Torture," Newsweek, June 17, 1982, 7;
31. Alan M. Dershowitz, Why Terrorism Works: Understanding the Threat Responding to the Challenge (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002);
32. Jean Bethke Elshtain, "Reflection on the Problem of Dirty Hands," in Torture: A Collection, ed. Sanford Levinson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004);
33. Oren Gross, "The Prohibition of Torture and the Limits of Law," in Torture: A Collection, ed. Sanford Levinson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004);
34. Michael Ignatieff, The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004);
35. Miller, "Is Torture Ever Morally Justifiable?" Richard A. Posner, Not a Suicide Pact: The Constitution in a Time of National Emergency (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006);
36. Dorris Schroeder, "A Child's Life or A 'Little Bit of Torture'? State-Sanctioned Violence and Dignity," Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 15 (2006): 188-201.
37. Significant non-consequentialist justifications of torture have also been put forward by Stephen Kershnar, "An Argument for the Use of Torture as Public Policy," Hamline Journal of Public Law and Policy 19 (1998): 497-528;
38. Fritz Allhoff, "A Defense of Torture: Separation of Cases, Ticking Time-Bombs and Moral Justification," International Journal of Applied Philosophy 19 (2005): 243-64;
39. Stephen Kershnar, "For Interrogational Torture," International Journal of Applied Philosophy 19 (2005): 223-41;
40. Jeff McMahan, "Torture, Morality, and Law," Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 37 (2005): 241-48;
41. Jeff McMahan, "Torture in Principle and in Practice," Public Affairs Quarterly 22 (2008): 111-128
42. Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishments, trans. David Young (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1986);
43. Seth F. Kreimer, "Too Close to the Rack and the Screw: Constitutional Constraints on Torture in the War on Terror," University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law 6 (2003): 278-325;
44. Jean Maria Arrigo, "A Utilitarian Argument against Torture Interrogation of Terrorists," Science and Engineering Ethics 10 (2004): 543-72;
45. Mark Danner, Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror (New York: New York Review of Books, 2004);
46. Henry Shue, "Torture," in Torture: A Collection, ed. Sanford Levinson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004);
47. Davis, "Moral Justification of Torture"; Kenneth Roth, Minky Worden, and Amy D Bernstein, eds., Torture: Does It Make Us Safer? Is It Ever Ok?: A Human Rights Perspective (New York: New Press, 2005);
48. Henry Shue, "Torture in Dreamland: Disposing of the Ticking Bomb," Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 37 (2005): 231-39;
49. Sussman, "Defining Torture"; David Sussman, "What's Wrong with Torture?" Philosophy & Public Affairs 33 (2005): 1-33;
50. Jeremy Waldron, "Torture and Positive Law: Jurisprudence for the White House," Columbia Law Review 105 (2005): 1681-750;
51. Vittorio Bufacchi and Jean Maria Arrigo, "Torture, Terrorism and the State: A Refutation of the Ticking-Bomb Argument," Journal of Applied Philosophy 23 (2006): 355-73;
52. David Luban, "Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Bomb," in The Torture Debate in America, ed. Karen J. Greenberg (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006);
53. Joseph Margulies, Guantánamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006);
54. Nigel S. Rodley, "The Prohibition of Torture: Absolute Means Absolute," Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 34 (2006): 145-60;
55. Mark Antaki, "The Politics and Inhumanity of Torture," Law, Culture, and the Humanities 3 (2007): 3-17;
56. Brecher, Torture and the Ticking Bomb;
57. Goldsmith, The Terror Presidency;
58. Yuval Ginbar, Why Not Torture Terrorists? Moral, Practical, and Legal Aspects of the 'Ticking Bomb' Justification for Torture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008);
59. Matthews, The Absolute Violation;
60. Jamie Mayerfeld, "In Defense of the Absolute Prohibition of Torture," Public Affairs Quarterly 22 (2008): 109-28;
61. Jordan J. Paust, "The Absolute Prohibition of Torture and Necessary and Appropriate Sanctions," Valparaiso University Law Review 43 (2009): 1535-1575
62. William E. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993).
63. For example, Paul W. Kahn, Sacred Violence: Torture, Terror, and Sovereignty (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008).
64. Matthews, The Absolute Violation, 23.
65. This raises the question of whether non-humans can be tortured. The answer, which depends on whether it is logically or practically possible to elicit a behavioral response from a non-human animal through the infliction of severe pain or suffering, would seem, prima facie, to be yes. See Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York: Ecco, 2002);
66. Stephen Macedo and Josiah Ober, eds., Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006). This question deserves a great deal more thought. However, for the remainder of this article, I will be concerned only with human-human torture.
67. See Matthews, The Absolute Violation, 49-51.
68. Sartori, Giovanni, "Concept Misinformation in Comparative Politics," American Political Science Review 64 (1970): 1033-1055
69. C.f. Catherine A. MacKinnon, "On Torture: A Feminist Perspective on Human Rights," in Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Challenge, ed. Kathleen E. Mahoney and Paul Mahoney (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1993).
70. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof;
71. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1995);
72. Peters, Torture
73. Silverman, Tortured Subjects;
74. Kahn, Sacred Violence.
75. Onora O'Neill, "Which Are the Offers Yo u Can't Refuse?" in Violence, Terrorism, and Justice, ed. R.G. Frey and Christopher W. Morris (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991);
76. Schroeder, "A Child's Life or A 'Little Bit of Torture'?"
77. United Nations, "United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment" (1986), Part 1, Article 1 (1).
78. As a legal definition, it can be argued that comprehensiveness and generality are not required. The above-mentioned actions are simply those tortures which are covered by the treaty, not all tortures which could conceivably exist.
79. Peters, Torture, 3, emphasis added.
80. Peters, Torture, 7, emphasis in the original.
81. Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 35.
82. Davis, "Moral Justification of Torture," 163.
83. Amnesty International, Voices for Freedom (London: Amnesty International, 1986).
84. Eamon Collins and Mick McGovern, Killing Rage (London: Granta Books, 1997).
85. This would be the case if we accepted Rejali's definition above. On loyalist collusion with state security forces, see Martin Dillon, The Dirty War: Covert Strategies and Tactics Used in Political Conflicts (New York: Routlege, 1999).
86. Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 39.
87. Christopher W. Tindale, "The Logic of Torture: A Critical Examination," Social Theory & Practice 22 (1996): 355.
88. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof;
89. see also Irwin M. Cohen and Raymond R. Corrado, "State Torture in the Contemporary World," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46 (2003): 103-131;
90. Davis, "Moral Justification of Torture";
91. Sussman, "What's Wrong with Torture?";
92. Marnia Lazreg, Torture and the Twilight of Empire: From Algiers to Baghdad (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
93. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof; Peters, Torture.
94. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof, 3.
95. Silverman, Tortured Subjects.
96. Amnesty International, Voices for Freedom; Paul Aussaresses, The Battle of the Casbah (New York: Enigma, 2002).
97. Minky Worden, "Torture Spoken Here: Ending Global Torture," in Torture: Does It Make Us Safer? Is It Ever OK?: A Human Rights Perspective, ed. Kenneth Roth and Minky Worden (New York: New Press, 2005).
98. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
99. Roy F. Baumeister, Evil: Inside Human Cruelty and Violence (New York: W.H. Freeman, 1997), 224.
100. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse, 24. It could reasonably be argued that certain mathematical or scientific concepts do not rest on such a "shared moral point of view." However, this rationale can in turn be countered with the argument that even mathematical and scientific concepts are based on shared metaphysical assumptions, which are no less "moral" in constitution.
101. See also Friedrich W. Nietzsche, The Gay Science; with a Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs, trans. Walter A. Kaufmann, 1st ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), III, § 111.
102. Davis, "Moral Justification of Torture"
103. ; Miller, "Is Torture Ever Morally Justifiable?"
104. Amnesty International, Report on Torture (London: Duckworth, 1973), 35, emphasis added.
105. Arthur Prochazka, Francois Clarac, Gerald E Loeb, John C Rothwell, and Jonathan R Wolpaw, "What Do Reflex and Voluntary Mean? Modern Views on an Ancient Debate," Experimental Brain Research 130 (2000): 417-432
106. The literature on free will is vast; see: Ivan M. Sechenov, Reflexes of the Brain (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1965); Julien Offray de La Mettrie, Man a Machine and Man a Plant (Hackett Publishing Company, 1994);
107. Robert Kane, Free Will (Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 2002);
108. Daniel M. Wegner, The Illusion of Conscious Will (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 2002);
109. Rene Descartes, Treatise of Man, trans. Thomas Steele Hall (New York: Prometheus Books, 2003);
110. Gary Watson, Free Will, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
111. Ron Suskind, The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America's Pursuit of Its Enemies since 9/11 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006);
112. Jaffer and Singh, Administration of Torture;
113. Mayer, The Dark Side.
114. Jay S. Bybee, "Memo to Alberto R. Gonzales Re: Standards of Conduct for Interrogation under 18 U.S.C.§ 2340-2340a," in The Torture Papers, ed. Karen J. Greenberg and Joshua L. Dratel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
115. It is worth pointing out that the Torture Statute was drawn up in 1994 under the Clinton administration; the problem with the legal conceptualization of torture in U.S. statute thus goes beyond one of the prerogatives of particular administrations.
116. I thank an anonymous reviewer for Polity for bringing these points to my attention.
117. Alfred R. Mele, "Acting Intentionally: Probing Folk Notions," in Intentions and Intentionality: Foundations of Social Cognition, ed. Bertram F. Malle, Louis J. Moses, and Dare Baldwin (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 2001).
118. Michael Bratman, "Two Faces of Intention," The Philosophical Review 93 (1984): 375-405;
119. Joshua Knobe, "Intentional Action and Side Effects in Ordinary Language," Analysis 63 (2003): 190-194
120. Sussman is an exception, including the "exercise of dominance or sadism simply for its own sake" as a possible purpose of torture; see Sussman, "What's Wrong with Torture?"
121. "To affect something is to alter it in some way (any way); to effect something is to bring about or accomplish it." Morriss, Power, 29, emphasis in original.
122. Rejali, Torture and Democracy. See also: Robert D. Stolorow, "The Narcissistic Function of Masochism (and Sadism)," International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 56 (1975): 441-48;
123. S.E. Holt, J.R. Meloy, and S. Strack, "Sadism and Psychopathy in Violent and Sexually Violent Offenders," Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online 27 (1999): 23-32.
124. Philippa Foot, "The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of Double Effect," Oxford Review 5 (1967): 5-15.
125. Nahid Toubia, "Female Genital Mutilation," in Women's Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives, ed. Julie S. Peters and Andrea Wolper (New York: Routledge, 1995).
126. There can of course be ritual mutilations where the infliction of pain is deliberate. Often in primitive warfare, captured enemies would be forced to run a gauntlet of beatings before being mutilated alive, scalped, and executed in gruesome fashion, whether by impalement on a sharpened pike or immolation by fire; see Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
127. Morriss, Power, 25-28.
128. Note the contrast with Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse, 104-105
129. Atul Gawande, "Hellhole: The United States Holds Tens of Thousands of Inmates in Long-Term Solitary Confinement. Is This Torture?" The New Yorker, March 30, 2009.
130. Graeme R Newman, Just and Painful: A Case for the Corporal Punishment of Criminals (New York: Macmillan, 1983);
131. Kershnar, "An Argument for the Use of Torture."
132. W. L. Twining and P. E. Twining, "Bentham on Torture," Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 24 (1973): 305-356
133. Foucault, Discipline and Punish.
134. Scarry, The Body in Pain, 27-28.
135. Jean Améry, At the Mind's Limits: Contemplations by a Survivor on Auschwitz and Its Realities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), 33.
136. Mayer, The Dark Side.
137. Bybee, "Memo to Alberto R. Gonzales."
138. U.S. Defense Department, "Working Group Report on Detainee Interrogations in the Global War on Terrorism: Assessment of Legal, Historical, Policy and Operational Considerations," in The Torture Papers, ed. Karen J. Greenberg and Joshua L. Dratel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
139. U.S. Justice Department, "Memorandum for James B. Comey, Deputy Attorney General, Re: Legal Standards Applicable under 18 Usc §§ 2340-2340a" (http://www.usdoj.gov/olc/dagmemo.pdf, 2006).
140. Eric Stover and Elena O. Nightingale, The Breaking of Bodies and Minds: Torture, Psychiatric Abuse, and the Health Professions (New York: Freeman, 1985), 6.
141. Ronald Melzack, "Neurophysiological Foundations of Pain," in The Psychology of Pain, ed. Richard A. Sternbach (New York: Raven Press, 1986), 1.
142. Nikola Grahek, Feeling Pain and Being in Pain, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 2007).
143. Richard A. Sternbach, ed., The Psychology of Pain, 2nd ed. (New York: Raven Press, 1986).
144. Changes in the skin's ability to conduct electricity.
145. Changes in the activation signal of muscles.
146. A rather loosely defined class of electrical phenomena in the central nervous system that follow impulse stimulation either of sensory receptors, as by clicks and light flashes, or of the brain itself, electrically.
147. Ronald Melzack, The Puzzle of Pain (New York: Basic Books, 1973);
148. Pierre Clastres, Society against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology (New York: Zone Books, 1987), 177-188
149. Baumeister, Evil.
150. Grahek, Feeling Pain.
151. Melzack, The Puzzle of Pain.
152. Ronald Melzack and Patrick D. Wall, The Challenge of Pain, rev. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1983).
153. Walter B Cannon, '"Voodoo' Death," Psychosomatic Medicine 19 (1957): 182-190
154. Grahek, Feeling Pain, 3.
155. Joel Katz and Ronald Melzack, "Measurement of Pain," Surgical Clinics of North America 79 (1999): 231-52, 235.
156. R. Melzack and W.R. Torgerson, "On the Language of Pain," Anesthesiology 34 (1971): 50-59.
157. Grahek, Feeling Pain, 40.
158. Grahek, Feeling Pain, 40.
159. Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997).
160. CIA Office of Inspector General, "Counterterrorism Detention and Interrogation Activities" (Available at: http://luxmedia.vo.llnwd.net/o10/ clients/aclu/IG-Report.pdf, 2004).
161. Grahek, Feeling Pain, 67.
162. Grahek, Feeling Pain, 67.
163. Grahek, Feeling Pain, 133.
164. Walter Freeman and James W. Watts, Psychosurgery in the Treatment of Mental Disorders and Intractable Pain, 2nd ed. (Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas, 1950).
165. Tony Lagouranis and Allen Mikaelian, Fear up Harsh: An Army Interrogator's Dark Journey through Iraq (New York: NAL Caliber, 2007).
166. It should be obvious that I am referring only to "credible" threats to torture, where the person being threatened is under the physical control of the person threatening. I discuss the issue of control in the following section.
167. C. Richard Chapman and Jonathan Gavrin, "Suffering: Contributions of Persistent Pain," Lancet 353 (1999), 2233.
168. Chapman and Gavrin, "Suffering," 2233.
169. Singer, Animal Liberation.
170. Chapman and Gavrin, "Suffering," 2235.
171. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof
172. Peters, Torture.
173. Silverman, Tortured Subjects;
174. Rejali, Torture and Democracy.
175. Steven Lukes, "Liberal Democratic Torture," British Journal of Political Science 36 (2005), 11.
176. Amnesty International, Voices for Freedom, 42.
177. Metin Basoglu, Maria Livanou, and Cvetana Crnobaric, "Torture vs Other Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment: Is the Distinction Real or Apparent?" Archives of General Psychiatry 64 (2007): 283.
178. Tania Singer, Ben Seymour, John O'Doherty, Holger Kaube, Raymond J. Dolan, and Chris D. Frith, "Empathy for Pain Involves the Affective but Not Sensory Components of Pain," Science 303 (2004): 1157-1162
179. Matthews, The Absolute Violation.
180. Ronald Melzack, "The McGill Pain Questionnaire: Major Properties and Scoring Methods," Pain 1 (1975): 277-99;
181. Mark P. Jensen, Paul Karoly, and Sanford Braver, "The Measurement of Clinical Pain Intensity: A Comparison of Six Methods," Pain 27 (1986): 117-26;
182. Else Kristine Breivik, Gudmunder A. Björnsson, and Eva Skovlund, "A Comparison of Pain Rating Scales by Sampling from Clinical Trial Data," The Clinical Journal of Pain 16 (2000): 22-28.
183. Sally L. Collins, R. Andrew Moore, and Henry J. McQuay, "The Visual Analogue Pain Intensity Scale: What Is Moderate Pain in Millimetres?" Pain 72 (1997): 95-97.
184. Katz and Melzack, "Measurement of Pain," 237.
185. Katz and Melzack, "Measurement of Pain," 240.
186. Joel D. Greenspan, Roland R. Lee, and Fred A. Lenz, "Pain Sensitivity Alterations as a Function of Lesion Location in the Parasylvian Cortex," Pain 81 (1999): 273-282
187. Jaffer and Singh, Administration of Torture.
188. John McGuffin, The Guineapigs (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974);
189. Peter Taylor, Beating the Terrorists?: Interrogation at Omagh, Gough and Castlereagh (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980).
190. John Conroy, Unspeakable Acts, Ordinary People: The Dynamics of Torture, 1st ed. (New York: Knopf, 2000).
191. Amnesty International, Report of an Amnesty International Mission to Northern Ireland, 28 November-6 December 1977 (London: Amnesty International Publications, 1978).
192. Author interview, Northern Ireland, 2007.
193. Rejali, Torture and Democracy.
194. Mayer, The Dark Side, 168.
195. Brig. Gen. Richard P. Formica, "Article 15-6 Investigation of CJSOFTF-AP and 5th SF Group Detention Operations," in Administration of Torture: A Documentary Record from Washington to Abu Ghraib and Beyond, ed. Jameel Jaffer and Amrit Singh (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).
196. Jaffer and Singh, Administration of Torture, 32.
197. Brecher, Torture and the Ticking Bomb, 5.
198. Melzack, The Puzzle of Pain.
199. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, 1970).
200. Found in Oregon Law, cited in Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 39.
201. William Twining and Barrie Paskins, "Torture and Philosophy," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes 52 (1978): 138.
202. Shue, "Torture."
203. Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 37.
204. Shue, "Torture," 51.
205. Morriss, Power, 49.
206. Sussman, "Defining Torture," 227.
207. Rhonda Copelon, "Intimate Terror: Understanding Domestic Violence as Torture," in Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives, ed. Rebecca J. Cook (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994).
208. Kahn, Sacred Violence, 89.
209. Kahn, Sacred Violence, 89.
210. Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations, 2nd ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1992).
211. Lazreg, Torture and the Twilight of Empire, 6.
212. Sussman, "Defining Torture," 227.
213. Scarry, The Body in Pain.
214. Sanford Levinson, ed., Torture: A Collection (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004);
215. Karen J. Greenberg, ed., The Torture Debate in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
216. Aussaresses, The Battle of the Casbah;
217. Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962 (New York: New York Review of Books, 2006).