The development of teaching as a profession for women before 1870

Historical Journal

Volumn 44, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 963-988

  de Bellaigue, Christina ^a  

^a Clare Hall ^*  (United Kingdom)

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EID: 77949445173     PISSN: 0018246X     EISSN: 14695103     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X01002138     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Josephine Kamm, Hope deferred: girls' education in English history (London, 1965), p. 141.
2. Joyce Senders Pedersen, The reform of girls' secondary education in Victorian England: a study of elites and educational change (New York, 1987), pp. 63–171
3. idem., ‘Schoolmistresses and head mistresses: elites and education in nineteenth century England’, Journal of British Studies, 1 (1975), pp. 196–282.
4. Figures from Penelope Corfield, Power and the professions in Britain (London, 1995), p. 33.
5. Anne Jemima Clough, Paper for the North of England Council for the Promotion of Higher Education for Women, 1868, quoted in Blanche Athena Clough, A memoir of Anne Jemima Clough (London, 1897), p. 138.
6. S. E. D. Shortt, ‘Physicians, science and status: issues in the professionalisation of Anglo-American medicine in the nineteenth century’, Medical History, 27 (1983), pp. 51–86
7. quoted in Mary Kinnear, In subordination: professional women, 1870–1970 (London, 1995), p. 7.
8. Corfield, Power and the professions, pp. 18–37.
9. Gillian Sutherland, ‘Examinations and the construction of professional identity: a case-study of England, 1800–1950’, Assessment in Education, 8 (2001), pp. 51–64.
10. Margaret Rossiter, Women scientists in America: struggles and strategies to 1940 (London, 1982), p. xvii.
11. Dina Copelman, London's women teachers: gender, class and feminism, 1870–1930 (London, 1996), p. 8.
12. Corfield, Power and the professions, p. 188.
13. Magali Larson, The rise of the professions, a sociological analysis (Berkeley, 1977)
14. Ralf Torstendahl, ‘Essential properties, strategic aims and historical development: three approaches to theories of professionalization’, in Michael Burrage and Ralf Torstendahl, eds., Professions in theory and history: rethinking the study of the professions (London, 1990), pp. 44–48.
15. Mary Maurice, Mothers and governesses (London, 1847), p. 18. The term ‘governess’ was commonly used interchangeably with ‘ schoolmistress’ before the 1870s. It seems to have been used to distinguish lady teachers from elementary teachers, rather than to refer to the location in which they worked. Thus Hints to a young governess on beginning a school, published anonymously in 1857, was intended as a guide for prospective boarding-school mistresses.
16. The study was based on an examination of the lives of women identified as proprietors of, or teachers in, schools for the middle class in Olive Banks, Biographical dictionary of British feminists, 1800–1930 (Brighton, 1985)
17. Peter Bell, Victorian women: an index to biographies and memoirs (London, 1989)
18. Barbara Kanner, Women in English Society, II: Autobiographical writings (New York, 1990).
19. Governesses' Benevolent Institution (GBI), Reports of the committee of management, 1847–1849 (London, 1847, 1848, 1849).
20. Elizabeth Sewell, Autobiography of Elizabeth Missing Sewell (London, 1907), p. 24.
21. Biographical information about other members of the Sewell dynasty is taken from Montague Owen, The Sewells of the Isle of Wight (Manchester, 1906).
22. Susan Skedd, ‘Women teachers and the expansion of girls’ schooling in England, c. 1760–1820’, in Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, eds., Gender in eighteenth century England (London, 1997), p. 103.
23. Everilda Gardiner, Recollections of a beloved mother (London, 1842), pp. 4, 28.
24. Sarah Ellis, The women of England: their social duties and domestic habits (London, 1839), p. 60.
25. Hannah More, Strictures on the modern system of female education (facsimile edn, New York, 1974), p. 97.
26. Anna Stoddart, The life and letters of Hannah E. Pipe (Edinburgh, 1908), p. 58.
27. Letter from Sarah Bennet to a parent, quoted in G. R. Bennet, The Christian governess: a memoir and selection from the correspondence of Miss Sarah Bennet (London, 1862), p. 60.
28. Mrs Hugh Fraser, A diplomatist's wife in many lands (2 vols., London, 1910), I, p. 223.
29. W. H. Herford, ed., In memoriam: Louisa Carbutt and Brook House, 1860–1870 (Manchester, 1907), p. 45.
30. Sheldon Rothblatt, Tradition and change in English liberal education (London, 1976), p. 130.
31. [A. E. Pendered], Remarks on female education, adapted particularly to the regulation of schools (London, 1823), p. 10
32. Frances Broadhurst, A word in favour of female schools (London, 1826), pp. 10–15.
33. Letters quoted in A. Matthews, Life of Sarah Bache (London, 1900).
34. Helen Higginson to Edward Higginson, Oct. 1823-Feb. 1826, Oxford, Harris Manchester College (HMC), Martineau Papers, J. Martineau 8, fos. 3–116.
35. Helen Higginson to Edward Higginson, Derby, 1 Feb. 1826, HMC, J. Martineau 8, fo. 53.
36. See for example S. F. Ridout, Letters to a young governess on the principles of education (London, 1838)
37. Hints to a young governess on beginning a school (London, 1857).
38. Sarah Jolly, Thoughts on the vocation and profession of the teacher (London, 1854), p. 47.
39. On the pedagogy of boys' schools see John Roach, A history of secondary education in England, 1800–1870 (London, 1986), p. 70.
40. The Governess: A Repertory of Female Education, 1 (July 1855), p. 31.
41. James Estlin Carpenter, Life and work of Mary Carpenter (London, 1879), p. 22.
42. Educational Times, 1 (1 Dec. 1847), p. 47.
43. The sample was based on letters of application in three randomly selected periods, 1830–4, 1840–2, 1849–1850
44. Applications and testimonials to Borough Road College, 1817–58, London, British and Foreign Schools Archive Centre (BFS), Applications to Borough Road College, 4, 437–449.
45. S. Thoroughgood to the Ladies' Committee of Borough Road College, Feb. 1834, BFS, Applications and testimonials to Borough Road College, 4, 438.
46. See for example Mrs Balmain's letter to the principal of Stockwell College, 28 May 1868, BFS, Middle Class schools - women, 319–311.
47. Cited in Frances Widdowson, Going up into the next class: women and elementary teacher training, 1840–1914 (London, 1980), p. 22. Middle-class women who were not destined for elementary teaching regularly accounted for a small proportion of each year's intake at Whitelands Training College and Stockwell College. See the Register of Mistresses, 1 (1842–7) and III (1849–52), London, Whitelands College Archives, and Register of Students, 1858–62, BFS, Stockwell College, 608.
48. Diary entry for 1849, quoted in Clough, A memoir, p. 73.
49. Anne Clough, ‘Appointments to schools’, Quarterly Papers of the Home and Colonial School Society (Jan. 1861), BFS, Home and Colonial School Society Reports, 814.
50. Josephine Kamm, How different from us: a biography of Miss Buss and Miss Beale (London, 1958), p. 45.
51. ‘Letters to the industrious classes: Letter IV - to the governesses of the United Kingdom’, Reynolds' Miscellany, p. 368, extract pasted into Governess Papers, 1846, London, London Metropolitan Archives, GBI, 1, p. 421.
52. M. Jeanne Peterson, ‘The Victorian governess: status icongruence’, in Martha Vicinus, ed., Suffer and be still: women in the Victorian age (London, 1980), pp. 3–20.
53. See, for example, Pedersen, The reform of girls' secondary education, ch. 5.
54. W. R. Greg, ‘Why are women redundant?’, National Review, 14 (Apr. 1862), pp. 433–435.
55. For a response, see Frances Power Cobbe, ‘What shall we do with our old maids?’, Fraser 's Magazine (Nov. 1863)
56. reprinted in Frances Power Cobbe, Essays on the pursuits of women (London, 1863), pp. 58–100.
57. For details of the development of examinations see John Roach, Public examinations in England, 1850–1900 (Cambridge, 1971).
58. Charter of the College of Preceptors, quoted in John Vincent Chapman, Professional roots: the College of Preceptors in British Society (Theydon Bois, 1985), p. 45.
59. Sheldon Rothblatt, The revolution of the Dons (London, 1968).
60. GBI, Report of the committee of management, 1845 (London, 1845).
61. Frances Buss to Dorothea Beale, 13 Jan. 1889, London, North London Collegiate Archives (NLC), Buss family papers, B1.
62. GBI, Report, 1848 (London, 1848), p. 17.
63. Elaine Kaye, A history of Queen s College, London, 1848–1927 (London, 1972), p. 53.
64. Frances Buss to Dorothea Beale, 13 Jan. 1889, NLC, Buss family papers, B1.
65. F. D. Maurice, Queen s College: its objects and methods (London, 1848), p. 5.
66. GBI, Report, 1848, p. 17.
67. T. W. Bamford, The rise of the public schools (London, 1967), p. 120.
68. Maurice, Queen's College, p. 5.
69. Fifty years of progress in education: a review of the work of the College of Preceptors, 1846–1896 (London, 1896), p. 7.
70. See the ‘selection from the examination papers’, Educational Times, 1 (2 Oct. 1847), pp. 3–5.
71. ‘Editorial’, Educational Times (Sept. 1848)
72. quoted in Chapman, Professional roots, p. 26.
73. ‘Ladies' department’, Educational Times, 1 (2 Oct. 1847), p. 5
74. A list of the Council of the Board of Examiners, Fellows, Licentiates, Associates and other members of the College of Preceptors (London, December 1862)
75. Chapman, Professional roots, p. 69.
76. A list of the members of the … College of Preceptors; ‘Examinations for Schools’, Register, Dec. 1866-Dec. 1875, London, Institute of Education, Papers of the College of Preceptors.
77. London Association of Schoolmistresses, List of members (May 1869), Cambridge, Girton College Archives (GCA), ED IX/LSM 4.
78. Mary Porter, ‘Hints on teaching, being the substance of two lectures addressed to governesses’ (London, 1865), NLC, Women's education, D2.
79. Quoted in Clough, A memoir, p. 110.
80. Minutes of the meeting of 14 June 1867, minute book, 1866–74, GCA, ED IX/LSM 1.
81. Quoted in Clough, A memoir, p. 110.
82. Sheila Fletcher, Feminists and bureaucrats: a study in the development of girls' education in the nineteenth century (Cambridge, 1980), examines these campaigns in detail.
83. ‘Minutes of evidence’, Reports of the Schools Inquiry Commissioners (Parl. Papers, 1867–8, xxviii), pp. 4, 5.
84. Emily Shirreff, The work of the National Union (London, 1873), Appendix 1, ‘The objects of the National Union for the Education of Women’, p. 48.
85. Quoted in P. H. Gosden, The evolution of a profession (Oxford, 1972), p. 12.
86. S. Delamont, ‘The contradictions in ladies' education’, in S. Delmont and L. Duffin, The nineteenth century woman, her cultural and physical world (London, 1978), pp. 134–163.
87. Elizabeth Sewell, ‘The reign of pedantry in girls' schools’, Nineteenth Century, 23 (Feb. 1888), p. 231
88. Dorothea Beale, quoted in Kamm, How different from us, p. 28.
89. Sewell, ‘The reign of pedantry’, p. 229.
90. Dorothea Beale, ‘Girls' schools past and present’, Nineteenth Century, 25 (Apr. 1888), p. 545.
91. S. G. Gordon, ‘Studies at Queen's College, Harley Street, 1848–1868’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 3 (May 1995), p. 148.
92. Dorothea Beale to Frances Buss, 2 Oct. 1871, NLC, History of the school, B1.
93. Estelle Freedman, ‘Separatism as strategy: female institution-building and American feminism, 1870–1930’, Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), p. 516.
94. Quoted in Elizabeth Raikes, Dorothea Beale of Cheltenham (London, 1908), pp. 37, 53.
95. A. E. Ridley, Frances Mary Buss and her work for education (London, 1895), p. 91.
96. Sutherland, ‘Examinations’, p. 8.
97. Rita McWilliams-Tullberg, Women at Cambridge (London, 1975), p. 165.
98. Manchester Board of Schoolmistresses, Annual report (Manchester, 1867)
99. quoted in Rhama Pope,‘Ladies' educational organisations in England, 1865–1885’, Paedagogica Historica, 15 (1976), p. 342.
100. Minute book, 1866–74, GCA, ED IX/LSM 1.
101. Quoted in Stoddart, Life and letters, pp. 87, 175.
102. Elizabeth M. Sewell, ‘The reign of pedantry in girls' schools’, Nineteenth Century, 23 (Feb. 1888), p. 220.
103. Frances Buss, ‘On the influence upon girls' schools of internal examinations, with special reference to the Cambridge Local Examinations’, May 1868, Papers given and presented for the London Association of Schoolmistresses, NLC, Place of the school in history, RS7iv.
104. Dorothea Beale, ‘Girls' schools past and present’, Nineteenth Century, 25 (Apr. 1888), p. 547.
105. Beale, ‘Girls' schools’, p. 552.
106. Minute book, 1866–74, GCA, ED IX/LSM 1.
107. Mary Porter, ‘The lecture system as applied to school teaching’, 1879, Papers given and presented for the London Association of Schoolmistresses, NLC, Place of the school in history, RS7iv.
108. For the first members of the society see Joachim Liebschner, Foundations of progressive education: the history of the National Froebel Society (Cambridge, 1991), p. 21.
109. Elizabeth Sewell, Principles of education, drawn from nature and revelation and applied to female education in the upper classes (2 vols., London, 1865), 1, p. 30.
110. Reports of the Schools Inquiry Commission, 11, pp. 84–87.
111. Quoted in Josephine Kamm, Indicative past (London, 1971), p. 53.
112. Reports of the Schools Inquiry Commission, 11, pp. 252–267.
113. Chapman, Professional roots, p. 73.
114. Clough, A memoir, p. 140.
115. Shirreff, The work of the National Union, Appendix 1, p. 48, and p. 22.
116. Shirreff, The work of the National Union, p. 22
117. Kamm, Indicative past, pp. 87–88.
118. Lance Jones, The training of teachers in England and Wales: a critical survey (Oxford, 1924), p. 30.
119. Shirreff, The work of the National Union, p. 23.
120. G. Baron, ‘The Teachers' Registration Movement’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 2 (1954), pp. 133–144.
121. Joseph Payne, The importance of the training of the teacher (London, 1873).
122. Stephen Tomlinson, ‘From Rousseau to evolutionism: Herbert Spencer and the science of education’, History of Education, 25 (1996), pp. 235–254
123. Herford, In memoriam, p. 18; list of books in the library of the London Association of Schoolmistresses, NLC, Place of the school in history, RS7iv.
124. Edward Thring to William Gladstone, 1861, quoted in G. R. Parkin, Edward Thring: diary, life and letters (2 vols., London, 1898), 11, p. 118.
125. Edward Thring, Address to the AHM, June 1887, quoted in G. R. Parkin, Life and letters of Edward Thring (London, 1900), pp. 483–484.
126. J. R. Seeley, quoted in McWilliams-Tullberg, Women at Cambridge, p. 65.
127. Gillian Sutherland, ‘The movement for the higher education of women: its social and intellectual context in England, c. 1840–1880 ’, in P. J. Waller, ed., Politics and social change in modern Britain (Brighton, 1987), p. 108.
128. J. R. de Honey, Tom Brown's universe: the development of the public schools in the nineteenth century (London, 1977), see especially ch. 3.
129. Quoted in Parkin, Edward Thring, 1, p. 172.
130. Gillian Sutherland, ‘Secondary education: the education of the middle classes’, in Sutherland, ed., Education, government and society in nineteenth century Britain (Dublin, 1977), p. 151.
131. Quoted in Sutherland, ‘Secondary education’, p. 151.
132. De Honey, Tom Brown s universe, pp. 124, 134.
133. Malcolm Seaborne, The English school: its architecture and organization, 1370–1870 (London, 1971),ch. II.
134. Reports of the Schools Inquiry Commission, I, pp. 56, 2.
135. Anne Clough, ‘Hints on the organisation of girls' schools’, Macmillan's magazine, 14 (Oct. 1866), p. 439.
136. Emily Davies, ‘The application of funds to the education of girls’, paper for the education department of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, 1868, GCA, ED X-6 a-c.
137. Frances Buss, appeal for support for North London Collegiate, ? 1868/1869, NLC, History of the school, B1. For the difficulties experienced by Frances Buss, see in particular three letters from Emily Davies to Frances dated 5 Jan. 1870, 1873, and 4 July 1874, NLC, History of the school, B1.
138. Stoddart, Life and letters, p. 56
139. Herford, In memoriam, p. 22
140. quoted in K. Anderson, ‘Frances Mary Buss, the founder as Headmistress, 1850–1894’, in R. M. Scrimgeour, ed., The North London Collegiate School, 1850–1950 (Oxford, 1950), p. 48.
141. D. Beale, ‘ Of the disposal of our time’, in E. Raikes, ed., Addresses to teachers (London, 1909), p. 9
142. J. H. Newman, The idea of a university (Oxford, 1976).
143. Reports of the Schools Inquiry Commission, 1, p. 62.
144. Reports of the Schools Inquiry Commission., 1, p. 613.
145. Michael Burrage,‘ From practice to school-based professional education: patterns of conflict and accommodation in England, France and the United States’, in Sheldon Rothblatt and Bjorn Wittrock, eds., The European and American university since 1800 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 180–183.
146. Christopher Harvie, The lights of liberalism: university liberals and the challenge of democracy, i860–1886 (London, 1976), p. 211.
147. Quoted in Nonita Glenday and Mary Price, Reluctant revolutionaries: a century of Head Mistresses, 1874–1974. (London, 1974), p. 31.
148. Sutherland, ‘The movement for the higher education of women’, pp. 102–104.
149. W.J. Reader, Professional men: the rise of the professional classes in nineteenth century England (London, 1966), p. 107.
150. Edward Thring, diary entry 27 Nov. 1867
151. quoted in Parkin, Life and letters, p. 179
152. quoted in Gosden, The evolution, p. 12.
153. Shirreff, The work of the National Union, Appendix 1, p. 48.
154. Hannah Pipe to Emily Davies, quoted in Stoddart, Life and letters, p. 180.
155. Sheila Fletcher, Women first: the female tradition in English physical education (London, 1984).
156. De Honey, Tom Brown s universe, p. 2.
157. Quoted in Peter Searby, The training of teachers in Cambridge University: the first sixty years, 1879–1939 (Cambridge, 1982), p. 8.
158. For contemporary studies see Kinnear, In subordination
159. Maaret Wager, Constructions of femininity in academic women: continuity between private and professional identity (Helsinki, 1994)
160. Nicole Mosconi, Femmes et savoir: la société, l 'école et la division des savoirs (Paris, 1994)
161. quoted in E. C. Wilson, Catherine Isabella Dodd, 1860–1932 (London, 1936), p. 7.