Making neurons from mature glia: A far-fetched dream?

Neuropharmacology

Volumn 58, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 894-902

  Berninger, Benedikt ^a,b  

^a INSTITUTE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

Brain repair; M ller glia; Neurogenesis; Proneural genes; Reactive gliosis; Stem cells

Indexed keywords

TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR PAX6;

ASTROCYTE; CELL CYCLE REGULATION; CELL LINEAGE; CELL MATURATION; CELL STRUCTURE; GENETIC REGULATION; GLIA CELL; MUELLER CELL; NERVE CELL DIFFERENTIATION; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE REGENERATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT; NONHUMAN; PIGMENT EPITHELIUM; POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

AGING; ANIMALS; HUMANS; NEUROGENESIS; NEUROGLIA; NEURONS; STEM CELLS;

EID: 77649337385     PISSN: 00283908     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2009.11.004     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Ahn S., and Joyner A.L. In vivo analysis of quiescent adult neural stem cells responding to sonic hedgehog. Nature 437 (2005) 894-897
2. Amankulor N.M., Hambardzumyan D., Pyonteck S.M., Becher O.J., Joyce J.A., and Holland E.C. Sonic hedgehog pathway activation is induced by acute brain injury and regulated by injury-related inflammation. J. Neurosci. 29 (2009) 10299-10308
3. Anthony T.E., Klein C., Fishell G., and Heintz N. Radial glia serve as neuronal progenitors in all regions of the central nervous system. Neuron 41 (2004) 881-890
4. Azuma N., Tadokoro K., Asaka A., Yamada M., Yamaguchi Y., Handa H., Matsushima S., Watanabe T., Kida Y., Ogura T., Torii M., Shimamura K., and Nakafuku M. Transdifferentiation of the retinal pigment epithelia to the neural retina by transfer of the Pax6 transcriptional factor. Hum. Mol. Genet. 14 (2005) 1059-1068
5. Baraban S.C., Southwell D.G., Estrada R.C., Jones D.L., Sebe J.Y., Alfaro-Cervello C., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., Rubenstein J.L., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Reduction of seizures by transplantation of cortical GABAergic interneuron precursors into Kv1.1 mutant mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106 (2009) 15472-15477
6. Berninger B., Costa M.R., Koch U., Schroeder T., Sutor B., Grothe B., and Götz M. Functional properties of neurons derived from in vitro reprogrammed postnatal astroglia. J. Neurosci. 27 (2007) 8654-8664
7. Berninger B., Guillemot F., and Götz M. Directing neurotransmitter identity of neurones derived from expanded adult neural stem cells. Eur. J. Neurosci. 25 (2007) 2581-2590
8. Berninger B., Hack M.A., and Gotz M. Neural stem cells: on where they hide, in which disguise, and how we may lure them out. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. (2006) 319-360
9. Brill M.S., Ninkovic J., Winpenny E., Hodge R.D., Ozen I., Yang R., Lepier A., Gascón S., Erdelyi F., Szabo G., Parras C., Guillemot F., Frotscher M., Berninger B., Hevner R.F., Raineteau O., and Götz M. Adult generation of glutamatergic olfactory bulb interneurons. Nat. Neurosci 12 (2009) 1524-1533
10. Brill M.S., Snapyan M., Wohlfrom H., Ninkovic J., Jawerka M., Mastick G.S., Ashery-Padan R., Saghatelyan A., Berninger B., and Götz M. A dlx2- and pax6-dependent transcriptional code for periglomerular neuron specification in the adult olfactory bulb. J. Neurosci. 28 (2008) 6439-6452
11. Buffo A., Rite I., Tripathi P., Lepier A., Colak D., Horn A.P., Mori T., and Gotz M. Origin and progeny of reactive gliosis: a source of multipotent cells in the injured brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105 (2008) 3581-3586
12. Buffo A., Vosko M.R., Erturk D., Hamann G.F., Jucker M., Rowitch D., and Gotz M. Expression pattern of the transcription factor Olig2 in response to brain injuries: implications for neuronal repair. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 102 (2005) 18183-18188
13. Cahoy J.D., Emery B., Kaushal A., Foo L.C., Zamanian J.L., Christopherson K.S., Xing Y., Lubischer J.L., Krieg P.A., Krupenko S.A., Thompson W.J., and Barres B.A. A transcriptome database for astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes: a new resource for understanding brain development and function. J. Neurosci. 28 (2008) 264-278
14. Campbell K., and Gotz M. Radial glia: multi-purpose cells for vertebrate brain development. Trends Neurosci. 25 (2002) 235-238
15. Capela A., and Temple S. LeX/ssea-1 is expressed by adult mouse CNS stem cells, identifying them as nonependymal. Neuron 35 (2002) 865-875
16. Chen Y., Miles D.K., Hoang T., Shi J., Hurlock E., Kernie S.G., and Lu Q.R. The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor olig2 is critical for reactive astrocyte proliferation after cortical injury. J. Neurosci. 28 (2008) 10983-10989
17. Chojnacki A.K., Mak G.K., and Weiss S. Identity crisis for adult periventricular neural stem cells: subventricular zone astrocytes, ependymal cells or both?. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10 (2009) 153-163
18. Codeluppi S., Svensson C.I., Hefferan M.P., Valencia F., Silldorff M.D., Oshiro M., Marsala M., and Pasquale E.B. The Rheb-mTOR pathway is upregulated in reactive astrocytes of the injured spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 29 (2009) 1093-1104
19. Colak D., Mori T., Brill M.S., Pfeifer A., Falk S., Deng C., Monteiro R., Mummery C., Sommer L., and Gotz M. Adult neurogenesis requires Smad4-mediated bone morphogenic protein signaling in stem cells. J. Neurosci. 28 (2008) 434-446
20. Dimos J.T., Rodolfa K.T., Niakan K.K., Weisenthal L.M., Mitsumoto H., Chung W., Croft G.F., Saphier G., Leibel R., Goland R., Wichterle H., Henderson C.E., and Eggan K. Induced pluripotent stem cells generated from patients with ALS can be differentiated into motor neurons. Science 321 (2008) 1218-1221
21. Doetsch F., Caille I., Lim D.A., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Subventricular zone astrocytes are neural stem cells in the adult mammalian brain. Cell 97 (1999) 703-716
22. Doetsch F., Petreanu L., Caille I., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., and Alvarez-Buylla A. EGF converts transit-amplifying neurogenic precursors in the adult brain into multipotent stem cells. Neuron 36 (2002) 1021-1034
23. Ebert A.D., Yu J., Rose Jr. F.F., Mattis V.B., Lorson C.L., Thomson J.A., and Svendsen C.N. Induced pluripotent stem cells from a spinal muscular atrophy patient. Nature 457 (2009) 277-280
24. Engelhardt M., Bogdahn U., and Aigner L. Adult retinal pigment epithelium cells express neural progenitor properties and the neuronal precursor protein doublecortin. Brain Res. 1040 (2005) 98-111
25. Fagel D.M., Ganat Y., Cheng E., Silbereis J., Ohkubo Y., Ment L.R., and Vaccarino F.M. Fgfr1 is required for cortical regeneration and repair after perinatal hypoxia. J. Neurosci. 29 (2009) 1202-1211
26. Fagel D.M., Ganat Y., Silbereis J., Ebbitt T., Stewart W., Zhang H., Ment L.R., and Vaccarino F.M. Cortical neurogenesis enhanced by chronic perinatal hypoxia. Exp. Neurol. 199 (2006) 77-91
27. Fischer A.J., and Reh T.A. Muller glia are a potential source of neural regeneration in the postnatal chicken retina. Nat. Neurosci. 4 (2001) 247-252
28. Gadea A., Schinelli S., and Gallo V. Endothelin-1 regulates astrocyte proliferation and reactive gliosis via a JNK/c-Jun signaling pathway. J. Neurosci. 28 (2008) 2394-2408
29. Ganat Y.M., Silbereis J., Cave C., Ngu H., Anderson G.M., Ohkubo Y., Ment L.R., and Vaccarino F.M. Early postnatal astroglial cells produce multilineage precursors and neural stem cells in vivo. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 8609-8621
30. Garcia A.D., Doan N.B., Imura T., Bush T.G., and Sofroniew M.V. GFAP-expressing progenitors are the principal source of constitutive neurogenesis in adult mouse forebrain. Nat. Neurosci. 7 (2004) 1233-1241
31. Gordon G.R., Mulligan S.J., and MacVicar B.A. Astrocyte control of the cerebrovasculature. Glia 55 (2007) 1214-1221
32. Gotz M., and Huttner W.B. The cell biology of neurogenesis. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 6 (2005) 777-788
33. Gotz M., Stoykova A., and Gruss P. Pax6 controls radial glia differentiation in the cerebral cortex. Neuron 21 (1998) 1031-1044
34. Guillemot F., and Cepko C.L. Retinal fate and ganglion cell differentiation are potentiated by acidic FGF in an in vitro assay of early retinal development. Development 114 (1992) 743-754
35. Gupta A., Carreno M., Wyllie E., and Bingaman W.E. Hemispheric malformations of cortical development. Neurology 62 (2004) S20-S26
36. Hack M.A., Saghatelyan A., de Chevigny A., Pfeifer A., Ashery-Padan R., Lledo P.M., and Gotz M. Neuronal fate determinants of adult olfactory bulb neurogenesis. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 865-872
37. Han Y.G., Spassky N., Romaguera-Ros M., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., Aguilar A., Schneider-Maunoury S., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Hedgehog signaling and primary cilia are required for the formation of adult neural stem cells. Nat. Neurosci. 11 (2008) 277-284
38. Haydon P.G., and Carmignoto G. Astrocyte control of synaptic transmission and neurovascular coupling. Physiol. Rev. 86 (2006) 1009-1031
39. Hayes S., Nelson B.R., Buckingham B., and Reh T.A. Notch signaling regulates regeneration in the avian retina. Dev. Biol. 312 (2007) 300-311
40. Heins N., Malatesta P., Cecconi F., Nakafuku M., Tucker K.L., Hack M.A., Chapouton P., Barde Y.A., and Gotz M. Glial cells generate neurons: the role of the transcription factor Pax6. Nat. Neurosci. 5 (2002) 308-315
41. Heng J.I., Nguyen L., Castro D.S., Zimmer C., Wildner H., Armant O., Skowronska-Krawczyk D., Bedogni F., Matter J.M., Hevner R., and Guillemot F. Neurogenin 2 controls cortical neuron migration through regulation of Rnd2. Nature 455 (2008) 114-118
42. Hevner R.F., Hodge R.D., Daza R.A., and Englund C. Transcription factors in glutamatergic neurogenesis: conserved programs in neocortex, cerebellum, and adult hippocampus. Neurosci. Res. 55 (2006) 223-233
43. Hirabayashi Y., Suzki N., Tsuboi M., Endo T.A., Toyoda T., Shinga J., Koseki H., Vidal M., and Gotoh Y. Polycomb limits the neurogenic competence of neural precursor cells to promote astrogenic fate transition. Neuron 63 (2009) 600-613
44. Hochstim C., Deneen B., Lukaszewicz A., Zhou Q., and Anderson D.J. Identification of positionally distinct astrocyte subtypes whose identities are specified by a homeodomain code. Cell 133 (2008) 510-522
45. Imura T., Kornblum H.I., and Sofroniew M.V. The predominant neural stem cell isolated from postnatal and adult forebrain but not early embryonic forebrain expresses GFAP. J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 2824-2832
46. Imura T., Nakano I., Kornblum H.I., and Sofroniew M.V. Phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of GFAP-expressing cells in vitro: differential expression of LeX/CD15 by GFAP-expressing multipotent neural stem cells and non-neurogenic astrocytes. Glia 53 (2006) 277-293
47. Inta D., Alfonso J., von Engelhardt J., Kreuzberg M.M., Meyer A.H., van Hooft J.A., and Monyer H. Neurogenesis and widespread forebrain migration of distinct GABAergic neurons from the postnatal subventricular zone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105 (2008) 20994-20999
48. Jadhav A.P., Roesch K., and Cepko C.L. Development and neurogenic potential of Muller glial cells in the vertebrate retina. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 28 (2009) 249-262
49. Jaenisch R., and Young R. Stem cells, the molecular circuitry of pluripotency and nuclear reprogramming. Cell 132 (2008) 567-582
50. Jessberger S., Toni N., Clemenson Jr. G.D., Ray J., and Gage F.H. Directed differentiation of hippocampal stem/progenitor cells in the adult brain. Nat. Neurosci. 11 (2008) 888-893
51. Jiao J., and Chen D.F. Induction of neurogenesis in non-conventional neurogenic regions of the adult CNS by niche astrocyte-produced signals. Stem Cells (2008)
52. Johansson C.B., Momma S., Clarke D.L., Risling M., Lendahl U., and Frisen J. Identification of a neural stem cell in the adult mammalian central nervous system. Cell 96 (1999) 25-34
53. Karl M.O., Hayes S., Nelson B.R., Tan K., Buckingham B., and Reh T.A. Stimulation of neural regeneration in the mouse retina. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105 (2008) 19508-19513
54. Kiilgaard J.F., Prause J.U., Prause M., Scherfig E., Nissen M.H., and la Cour M. Subretinal posterior pole injury induces selective proliferation of RPE cells in the periphery in in vivo studies in pigs. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48 (2007) 355-360
55. Kriegstein A., and Alvarez-Buylla A. The glial nature of embryonic and adult neural stem cells. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 32 (2009) 149-184
56. Lamba D., Karl M., and Reh T. Neural regeneration and cell replacement: a view from the eye. Cell Stem Cell 2 (2008) 538-549
57. Lamba D.A., Hayes S., Karl M.O., and Reh T. Baf60c is a component of the neural progenitor-specific BAF complex in developing retina. Dev. Dyn. 237 (2008) 3016-3023
58. Laywell E.D., Rakic P., Kukekov V.G., Holland E.C., and Steindler D.A. Identification of a multipotent astrocytic stem cell in the immature and adult mouse brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97 (2000) 13883-13888
59. Lessard J., Wu J.I., Ranish J.A., Wan M., Winslow M.M., Staahl B.T., Wu H., Aebersold R., Graef I.A., and Crabtree G.R. An essential switch in subunit composition of a chromatin remodeling complex during neural development. Neuron 55 (2007) 201-215
60. Liu B., Chen H., Johns T.G., and Neufeld A.H. Epidermal growth factor receptor activation: an upstream signal for transition of quiescent astrocytes into reactive astrocytes after neural injury. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 7532-7540
61. Liu H.K., Belz T., Bock D., Takacs A., Wu H., Lichter P., Chai M., and Schutz G. The nuclear receptor tailless is required for neurogenesis in the adult subventricular zone. Genes Dev. 22 (2008) 2473-2478
62. Liu X., Bolteus A.J., Balkin D.M., Henschel O., and Bordey A. GFAP-expressing cells in the postnatal subventricular zone display a unique glial phenotype intermediate between radial glia and astrocytes. Glia 54 (2006) 394-410
63. Liu X., Wang Q., Haydar T.F., and Bordey A. Nonsynaptic GABA signaling in postnatal subventricular zone controls proliferation of GFAP-expressing progenitors. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 1179-1187
64. LoTurco J.J., and Bai J. The multipolar stage and disruptions in neuronal migration. Trends Neurosci. 29 (2006) 407-413
65. Ma W., Yan R.T., Li X., and Wang S.Z. Reprogramming retinal pigment epithelium to differentiate toward retinal neurons with Sox2. Stem Cells 27 (2009) 1376-1387
66. Machold R., Hayashi S., Rutlin M., Muzumdar M.D., Nery S., Corbin J.G., Gritli-Linde A., Dellovade T., Porter J.A., Rubin L.L., Dudek H., McMahon A.P., and Fishell G. Sonic hedgehog is required for progenitor cell maintenance in telencephalic stem cell niches. Neuron 39 (2003) 937-950
67. Magavi S.S., Leavitt B.R., and Macklis J.D. Induction of neurogenesis in the neocortex of adult mice. Nature 405 (2000) 951-955
68. Malatesta P., Hack M.A., Hartfuss E., Kettenmann H., Klinkert W., Kirchhoff F., and Gotz M. Neuronal or glial progeny: regional differences in radial glia fate. Neuron 37 (2003) 751-764
69. Malatesta P., Hartfuss E., and Gotz M. Isolation of radial glial cells by fluorescent-activated cell sorting reveals a neuronal lineage. Development 127 (2000) 5253-5263
70. Martens J.A., and Winston F. Recent advances in understanding chromatin remodeling by Swi/Snf complexes. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 13 (2003) 136-142
71. Merkle F.T., Mirzadeh Z., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Mosaic organization of neural stem cells in the adult brain. Science 317 (2007) 381-384
72. Merkle F.T., Tramontin A.D., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Radial glia give rise to adult neural stem cells in the subventricular zone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101 (2004) 17528-17532
73. Mirzadeh Z., Merkle F.T., Soriano-Navarro M., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Neural stem cells confer unique pinwheel architecture to the ventricular surface in neurogenic regions of the adult brain. Cell Stem Cell 3 (2008) 265-278
74. Molofsky A.V., He S., Bydon M., Morrison S.J., and Pardal R. Bmi-1 promotes neural stem cell self-renewal and neural development but not mouse growth and survival by repressing the p16Ink4a and p19Arf senescence pathways. Genes Dev. 19 (2005) 1432-1437
75. Molyneaux B.J., Arlotta P., Menezes J.R., and Macklis J.D. Neuronal subtype specification in the cerebral cortex. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 8 (2007) 427-437
76. Mori T., Tanaka K., Buffo A., Wurst W., Kuhn R., and Gotz M. Inducible gene deletion in astroglia and radial glia - a valuable tool for functional and lineage analysis. Glia 54 (2006) 21-34
77. Mulligan S.J., and MacVicar B.A. Calcium transients in astrocyte endfeet cause cerebrovascular constrictions. Nature 431 (2004) 195-199
78. Nakagomi N., Nakagomi T., Kubo S., Nakano-Doi A., Saino O., Takata M., Yoshikawa H., Stern D.M., Matsuyama T., and Taguchi A. Endothelial cells support survival, proliferation, and neuronal differentiation of transplanted adult ischemia-induced neural stem/progenitor cells after cerebral infarction. Stem Cells 27 (2009) 2185-2195
79. Nakagomi T., Taguchi A., Fujimori Y., Saino O., Nakano-Doi A., Kubo S., Gotoh A., Soma T., Yoshikawa H., Nishizaki T., Nakagomi N., Stern D.M., and Matsuyama T. Isolation and characterization of neural stem/progenitor cells from post-stroke cerebral cortex in mice. Eur. J. Neurosci. 29 (2009) 1842-1852
80. Nakatomi H., Kuriu T., Okabe S., Yamamoto S., Hatano O., Kawahara N., Tamura A., Kirino T., and Nakafuku M. Regeneration of hippocampal pyramidal neurons after ischemic brain injury by recruitment of endogenous neural progenitors. Cell 110 (2002) 429-441
81. Ninkovic J., Mori T., and Götz M. Distinct modes of neuron addition in adult mouse neurogenesis. J. Neurosci. 27 (2007) 10906-10911
82. Noctor S.C., Flint A.C., Weissman T.A., Dammerman R.S., and Kriegstein A.R. Neurons derived from radial glial cells establish radial units in neocortex. Nature 409 (2001) 714-720
83. Noctor S.C., Martinez-Cerdeno V., Ivic L., and Kriegstein A.R. Cortical neurons arise in symmetric and asymmetric division zones and migrate through specific phases. Nat. Neurosci. 7 (2004) 136-144
84. Noctor S.C., Martinez-Cerdeno V., and Kriegstein A.R. Distinct behaviors of neural stem and progenitor cells underlie cortical neurogenesis. J. Comp. Neurol. 508 (2008) 28-44
85. Nunes M.C., Roy N.S., Keyoung H.M., Goodman R.R., McKhann II G., Jiang L., Kang J., Nedergaard M., and Goldman S.A. Identification and isolation of multipotential neural progenitor cells from the subcortical white matter of the adult human brain. Nat. Med. 9 (2003) 439-447
86. Ohori Y., Yamamoto S., Nagao M., Sugimori M., Yamamoto N., Nakamura K., and Nakafuku M. Growth factor treatment and genetic manipulation stimulate neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis by endogenous neural progenitors in the injured adult spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 11948-11960
87. Ooto S., Akagi T., Kageyama R., Akita J., Mandai M., Honda Y., and Takahashi M. Potential for neural regeneration after neurotoxic injury in the adult mammalian retina. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101 (2004) 13654-13659
88. Palma V., Lim D.A., Dahmane N., Sanchez P., Brionne T.C., Herzberg C.D., Gitton Y., Carleton A., Alvarez-Buylla A., and Ruiz i Altaba A. Sonic hedgehog controls stem cell behavior in the postnatal and adult brain. Development 132 (2005) 335-344
89. Park C.M., and Hollenberg M.J. Basic fibroblast growth factor induces retinal regeneration in vivo. Dev. Biol. 134 (1989) 201-205
90. Pastrana E., Cheng L.C., and Doetsch F. Simultaneous prospective purification of adult subventricular zone neural stem cells and their progeny. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106 (2009) 6387-6392
91. Petreanu L., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Maturation and death of adult-born olfactory bulb granule neurons: role of olfaction. J. Neurosci. 22 (2002) 6106-6113
92. Petryniak M.A., Potter G.B., Rowitch D.H., and Rubenstein J.L. Dlx1 and Dlx2 control neuronal versus oligodendroglial cell fate acquisition in the developing forebrain. Neuron 55 (2007) 417-433
93. Pittack C., Jones M., and Reh T.A. Basic fibroblast growth factor induces retinal pigment epithelium to generate neural retina in vitro. Development 113 (1991) 577-588
94. Platel J.C., Dave K.A., and Bordey A. Control of neuroblast production and migration by converging GABA and glutamate signals in the postnatal forebrain. J. Physiol. 586 (2008) 3739-3743
95. Richardson R.M., Barbaro N.M., Alvarez-Buylla A., and Baraban S.C. Developing cell transplantation for temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurg. Focus 24 (2008) E17
96. Saghatelyan A., de Chevigny A., Schachner M., and Lledo P.M. Tenascin-R mediates activity-dependent recruitment of neuroblasts in the adult mouse forebrain. Nat. Neurosci. 7 (2004) 347-356
97. Sakaguchi D.S., Janick L.M., and Reh T.A. Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) induced transdifferentiation of retinal pigment epithelium: generation of retinal neurons and glia. Dev. Dyn. 209 (1997) 387-398
98. Seri B., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., McEwen B.S., and Alvarez-Buylla A. Astrocytes give rise to new neurons in the adult mammalian hippocampus. J. Neurosci. 21 (2001) 7153-7160
99. Shen Q., Wang Y., Kokovay E., Lin G., Chuang S.M., Goderie S.K., Roysam B., and Temple S. Adult SVZ stem cells lie in a vascular niche: a quantitative analysis of niche cell-cell interactions. Cell Stem Cell 3 (2008) 289-300
100. Shi Y., Chichung Lie D., Taupin P., Nakashima K., Ray J., Yu R.T., Gage F.H., and Evans R.M. Expression and function of orphan nuclear receptor TLX in adult neural stem cells. Nature 427 (2004) 78-83
101. Silver D.J., and Steindler D.A. Common astrocytic programs during brain development, injury and cancer. Trends Neurosci. 32 (2009) 303-311
102. Sofroniew M.V. Molecular dissection of reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation. Trends Neurosci. (2009)
103. Suh H., Consiglio A., Ray J., Sawai T., D'Amour K.A., and Gage F.H. In vivo fate analysis reveals the multipotent and self-renewal capacities of Sox2+ neural stem cells in the adult hippocampus. Cell Stem Cell 1 (2007) 515-528
104. Sun Y., Goderie S.K., and Temple S. Asymmetric distribution of EGFR receptor during mitosis generates diverse CNS progenitor cells. Neuron 45 (2005) 873-886
105. Takahashi K., and Yamanaka S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126 (2006) 663-676
106. Takeuchi J.K., Lickert H., Bisgrove B.W., Sun X., Yamamoto M., Chawengsaksophak K., Hamada H., Yost H.J., Rossant J., and Bruneau B.G. Baf60c is a nuclear Notch signaling component required for the establishment of left-right asymmetry. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 104 (2007) 846-851
107. Tashiro A., Sandler V.M., Toni N., Zhao C., and Gage F.H. NMDA-receptor-mediated, cell-specific integration of new neurons in adult dentate gyrus. Nature 442 (2006) 929-933
108. Tatsumi K., Takebayashi H., Manabe T., Tanaka K.F., Makinodan M., Yamauchi T., Makinodan E., Matsuyoshi H., Okuda H., Ikenaka K., and Wanaka A. Genetic fate mapping of Olig2 progenitors in the injured adult cerebral cortex reveals preferential differentiation into astrocytes. J. Neurosci. Res. 86 (2008) 3494-3502
109. Tavazoie M., Van der Veken L., Silva-Vargas V., Louissaint M., Colonna L., Zaidi B., Garcia-Verdugo J.M., and Doetsch F. A specialized vascular niche for adult neural stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 3 (2008) 279-288
110. Turner D.L., and Cepko C.L. A common progenitor for neurons and glia persists in rat retina late in development. Nature 328 (1987) 131-136
111. Wang D.D., and Bordey A. The astrocyte odyssey. Prog. Neurobiol. 86 (2008) 342-367
112. Wernig M., Zhao J.P., Pruszak J., Hedlund E., Fu D., Soldner F., Broccoli V., Constantine-Paton M., Isacson O., and Jaenisch R. Neurons derived from reprogrammed fibroblasts functionally integrate into the fetal brain and improve symptoms of rats with Parkinson's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105 (2008) 5856-5861
113. Yan R.T., Ma W.X., and Wang S.Z. Neurogenin2 elicits the genesis of retinal neurons from cultures of nonneural cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98 (2001) 15014-15019
114. Yoo A.S., and Crabtree G.R. ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling in neural development. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 19 (2009) 120-126
115. Yurco P., and Cameron D.A. Responses of Muller glia to retinal injury in adult zebrafish. Vis. Res. 45 (2005) 991-1002
116. Zhou Q., Brown J., Kanarek A., Rajagopal J., and Melton D.A. In vivo reprogramming of adult pancreatic exocrine cells to beta-cells. Nature 455 (2008) 627-632