The Southern European model of immigration: Do the cases of Malta, Cyprus and Slovenia fit?

Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 265-291

  King, Russell ^a   Thomson, Mark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77649113716     PISSN: 19448953     EISSN: 19448961     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14613190802493550     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. The figure of 600,000 referred only to arrivals and took no account of returns. This is a major statistical oversight, and greatly distorted the public debate over this issue.
2. Except for small quotas of highly skilled workers and seasonal farm workers.
3. R. King and K. Rybaczuk, 'Southern Europe and the international division of labour: from emigration to immigration', in R. King (ed.), The New Geography of European Migrations Belhaven, London, 1993, pp. 175-206
4. R. King, A. J. Fielding and R. Black, 'The international migration turnaround in Southern Europe', in R. King and R. Black (eds), Southern Europe and the New Immigrations, Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 1997, pp. 1-25
5. R. King, 'Southern Europe in the changing global map of migration', in R. King, G. Lazaridis and C. Tsardanidis (eds), Eldorado or Fortress? Migration in Southern Europe, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2000, pp. 3-26.
6. Research for this paper was funded by the Nuffield Foundation Social Sciences Small Grants Scheme (grant No. SGS/01207/G), held during May-October 2005, which we gratefully acknowledge.
7. Thus, France's migrants were drawn mainly from the group of countries immediately to the south: Spain, Portugal and Algeria. Belgium's migrants were mainly Italians, Moroccans and Turks. Germany drew on a set of countries to the south-east: initially Italy, then Greece, Yugoslavia and Turkey.
8. S. Castles and G. Kosack, Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, Oxford University Press and the Institute of Race Relations, London, 1973 (2nd edn 1985)
9. M. J. Piore, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979.
10. R. King, A. J. Fielding and R. Black, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge pp. 9-13.
11. Statistical evidence for the advance of the four Southern EU countries towards the economic levels and structures of the rest of the (then) EU is assembled in R. King and I. Konjhodzic, 'Labour, employment and migration in Southern Europe', in J. Van Oudenaren (ed.), Employment, Economic Development and Migration in Southern Europe and the Maghreb, RAND, Santa Monica, CA, 1996, pp. 7-106.
12. E. Mingione, 'Labour market segmentation and informal work in Southern Europe', European Urban and Regional Studies, 2(2), 1995, pp. 121-143.
13. Data on immigrant permit-holders in Italy for 31 December 2003 show, out of a total stock of just under 2.2 million: Romania 239,426 (10.9 per cent), Albania 233,616 (10.6 per cent), Morocco 227,940 (10.4 per cent). From Caritas, 'Immigrazione Dossier Statistico 2004', IDOS, Rome, 2004.
14. R. King, A. M. Warnes and A. M. Williams, Sunset Lives: British Retirement Migration to the Mediterranean, Berg, Oxford, 2000
15. K. O'Reilly, The British on the Costa del Sol: Transnational Identities and Local Communities, Routledge, London, 2000.
16. Regularizations have been held as follows (figures in parentheses indicate numbers applying or regularized at each scheme). Italy: 1986 (113,000), 1990 (235,000), 1995 (259,000), 1998 (251,000), 2002 (704,000). Spain: 1985 (43,000), 1991 (110,000), 1996 (21,300), 2000 (164,000), 2001 (216,000). Portugal: 1992 (39,000),1996 (35,000), 2002 (146,000). Greece: 1998 (371,000), 2001 (351,000). Figures culled from various sources, including national statistical websites.
17. G. Campani, 'Immigrant women in Southern Europe: social exclusion, domestic work and prostitution in Italy', in R. King, G. Lazaridis and C. Tsardanidis (eds), Eldorado or Fortress?, pp. 145-169
18. I. Psimmenos, 'The making of periphractic spaces: the case of Albanian undocumented female migrants in the sex industry in Athens', in F. Anthias and G. Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move, Berg, Oxford, 2000, pp. 81-101.
19. F. Anthias and G. Lazaridis (eds), Into the Margins: Migration and Exclusion in Southern Europe, Ashgate, Aldershot, 1999
20. A. Triandafyllidou, 'Racists? Are you joking? The discourse of social exclusion of immigrants in Greece and Italy', in R. King, G. Lazaridis and C. Tsardanidis (eds), Eldorado or Fortress?, pp. 186-206.
21. We cannot name all interviewees, but we would particularly like to thank Godfrey Baldacchino, Josie Christodoulou, Anton Gosar, Felicita Medved and Sharon Spiteri for their special insights and help in setting up further interviews.
22. D. Josipovič, 'Population development in Slovenia from the beginning of counting to the present day', in M. O. Adamič (ed.), Slovenia: A Geographical Overview, Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia, Ljubljana, 2004, pp. 81-86 (p. 83).
23. By comparison, Croatia and Serbia, which had roughly equal-sized populations to Slovenia in the 19th century, today have populations which are, respectively, twice and five times that of Slovenia. Emigration is not the whole story here; differential birth rates also play a key role. Currently Slovenia has one of the lowest birth rates in Europe and for the past decade has been negative (i.e. deaths exceed births). Continued population growth (from 1,913,355 at the 1991 census to 1,964,036 in the 2002 census) is thus due to immigration.
24. J. Zupančič, 'Ethnic structure of Slovenia and Slovenes in neighbouring countries', in M. O. Adamic (ed.), Slovenia: A Geographical Overview, Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia, Ljubljana, 2004, pp. 87-92.
25. These figures do not include members of the long-established Slovene minorities in neighbouring territories. According to Slovene estimates, the Slovene minority is between 83,000 and 100,000 in Italy, 45,000 in Austria and 5000 in Hungary; host-country estimates are invariably much lower (52,000 in Italy, for instance).
26. S. Zavratnik Zimic, Migrant Trends in Selected Applicant Countries, Volume VI-Slovenia: The Perspective of a Country on the 'Schengen Periphery', International Organization for Migration, Vienna, 2003, pp. 10-12.
27. S. Andreev, 'Making Slovenian citizens: the problem of the Former Yugoslav citizens and asylum-seekers living in Slovenia', Southeast European Politics, 4(1), 2003, pp. 1-24
28. J. Dedić, V. Jalušič and J. Zorn, The Erased: Organized Innocence and the Politics of Exclusion, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2003.
29. J. Zupančič, The Erased: Organized Innocence and the Politics of Exclusion, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2003, p. 89.
30. G. Bowman, 'Xenophobia, fantasy and the nation: the logic of ethnic violence in former Yugoslavia', in J. Steyn (ed.), Other Than Identity, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1997, pp. 122-143 (p. 131).
31. K. Erjavec, 'Media construction of identity through moral panics: discourses of immigration in Slovenia', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 29(1), 2003, pp. 83-101.
32. M. Thomson, 'Migrants on the edge of Europe: perspectives from Malta, Cyprus and Slovenia', Sussex Migration Working Paper No. 35, Sussex Centre for Migration Research, University of Sussex, 2006, p. 10.
33. K. Erjavec, 'Migrants on the edge of Europe: perspectives from Malta, Cyprus and Slovenia', Sussex Migration Working Paper No. 35, Sussex Centre for Migration Research, University of Sussex, 2006, p. 96.
34. For a detailed, and at times both shocking and moving, study of life inside this, and other such centres in Slovenia see M. Pajnik, P. Lesjak-Tušek and M. Gregorcic, Immigrants, Who are You? Research on Immigrants in Slovenia, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2001.
35. M. Thomson, Immigrants, Who are You? Research on Immigrants in Slovenia, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2001, p. 10.
36. S. Zavratnik Zimic, Immigrants, Who are You? Research on Immigrants in Slovenia, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2001, pp. 27-28.
37. Recent figures from the UNHCR database record only 142 asylum claims granted out of more than 16,000 applications, and only 124 refugees actually living in Slovenia (as of 31 December 2005). See, www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home.
38. See the data from the Slovenian Statistical Yearbook 2005
39. M. Thomson, Immigrants, Who are You? Research on Immigrants in Slovenia, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2001, p. 10, Appendix, Table 5
40. S. Zavratnik Zimic, Immigrants, Who are You? Research on Immigrants in Slovenia, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2001, p. 15, Table 3 and p. 17, Tables 6 and 7.
41. S. Zavratnik Zimic, U. Kavcic, M. Pajnik and P. Lesjak-Tušek, Where in the Puzzle: Trafficking from, to and through Slovenia, International Organization for Migration, Ljubljana, 2003.
42. B. Kovač, 'Globalisation, migration and economic development on the margins of Slovenia's migration policy dilemma', in M. Pajnik and S. Zavratnik Zimic (eds), Migration-Globalisation-European Union, Mirovni Inštitut, Ljubljana, 2003, pp. 213-255 (p. 246).
43. M. Pajnik, 'Integration policies in migration between nationalising states and transnational citizenship, with reference to the Slovenian case', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(5), 2007, pp. 849-865
44. Pajnik describes this belief in an essential, unquestioned Slovenian identity as 'fictive ethnicity'.
45. Annual data show sharp increases in temporary residence permits awarded to Ukrainians, Russians, Moldovans, Romanians and Chinese after 2000.
46. R. King, 'Postwar migration patterns and policies in Malta', European Demographic Information Bulletin, 10(3), 1979, pp. 108-128.
47. Owing to the scale of emigration, which neutralized the high natural increase (excess of births over deaths), the population total remained rather stable over these years: census figures were 305,991 (1948),319,668 (1957) and 317,026 (1967). The fall-off of emigration and the growth of return after 1974 then led to renewed rising population. However, natural increase slowed dramatically, so the overall population increase was rather modest, to 340,907 (1985 census), 371,173 (1995) and an estimated 400,000 today.
48. H. R. Jones, 'Modern emigration from Malta', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 60, 1973, pp. 101-120.
49. E. P. Delia, 'The determinants of modern Maltese emigration', International Migration, 20(1/2), 1982, pp. 11-25
50. R. King, 'Recent developments in the political and economic geography of Malta', Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 70(5), 1979, pp. 258-271.
51. A. M. Warnes and G. Patterson, 'British retirees in Malta: components of the cross-national relationship', International Journal of Population Geography, 4(2), 1998, pp. 113-133.
52. M.-A. Falzon, 'Origins and establishment of the Indian business community in Malta', Bank of Valletta Review, 24, 2001, pp. 73-92.
53. K. Schembri, 'Will Malta be a bridge to the south?', europemag, 2004.
54. Malta's coastal waters are quite expansive. There are also claims that Italy pre-empts migrants' arrival on its own shores by signalling boats in distress to their Maltese counterparts.
55. See, for example, the most recent report by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) which concluded that, despite improvements to relieve overcrowding in detention centres, sanitary conditions remained poor (a lack of hot water, and an inadequate number of toilets and showers). ECRI, 'Follow-up report on Malta (2003-2005)', European Commission against Racism and Intolerance, Strasbourg, 2006.
56. Figures for Greek Cypriot emigration to Britain show a rise in numbers from just over 5000 in 1959 to nearly 13,000 the following year before falling again to just over 2100 in 1963.
57. R. King and J. Bridal, 'The changing distribution of Cypriots in London', Studi Emigrazione, 65, 1982, pp. 93-120, Table 1.
58. R. King, 'Cyprus since 1974: economic and demographic change', presentation to the Fifth Mediterranean Conference, Bar-Ilan University, Tel Aviv, 5-7 August 1980.
59. R. King, 'Cypriot refugees in Cyprus', The Geographical Magazine, 52(4), 1980, pp. 266-273.
60. G. Bertrand, 'Cypriots in Britain: diaspora(s) committed to peace?', Turkish Studies, 5(2), 2004, pp. 93-110.
61. N. Trimikliniotis and C. Demetriou, Active Civic Participation of Immigrants in Cyprus, Universitat Oldenburg, Oldenburg, 2005.
62. N. Trimikliniotis, 'Discriminated voices-Cyprus report', The European Dilemma: Institutional Patterns and the Politics of 'Racial' Discrimination: Research Project Xenophob, EU Fifth Framework Program 2002-2005, 2003, p. 6. Greeks (including Pontians with Greek passports) have long been allowed to permanently live and work in Cyprus.
63. P. Panayiotopoulos, 'The globalisation of care: Filipina domestic workers and care for the elderly in Cyprus', Capital & Class, 86, 2005, pp. 99-133.
64. R. Lenz, 'Fake marriages as a "threat" for the nation-migrant sex workers in Cyprus', in A. Szczepaniková, M. Canek and J. Grill (eds), Migration Processes in Central and Eastern Europe: Unpacking the Diversity, Multicultural Centre, Prague, 2006, pp. 34-37.
65. UNHCR, 2006 Country Operations Plan for Cyprus, UNHCR, Geneva, 2005.
66. E. Strovolidou and R. Colville, Cyprus:The Twisted Reality Behind the Statistics, UNHCR, Geneva, 2005.
67. N. Trimikliniotis, Cyprus:The Twisted Reality Behind the Statistics, UNHCR, Geneva, 2005.
68. B. Kovač, N. Trimikliniotis, Cyprus:The Twisted Reality Behind the Statistics, UNHCR, Geneva, 2005. pp. 215, 245.
69. S. Zavratnik Zimic, Cyprus:The Twisted Reality Behind the Statistics, UNHCR, Geneva, 2005, p. 15, Table 3.
70. Although it is acknowledged that the remaining countries of the former Yugoslavia, and even Albania, do have the ultimate vocation to become EU members, but only after adopting 'appropriate' policy behaviour, including establishing 'normal' relationships between themselves, and thereby 'European' values and standards of living are achieved
71. E. Kavalski, 'From the crescent to the circle of security? Defining the Euro-Atlantic border in the Balkans', in D. Nećak (ed.), Borders in Southeastern Europe: Culture and Politics between the 18th and 21st Century, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana (Historia, Vol. 7), 2004, pp. 87-100.