The "China Threat" in American self-imagination: The discursive construction of other as power politics

Alternatives

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 305-331

  Pan, Chengxin ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 7744229328     PISSN: 03043754     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030437540402900304     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. It is impossible to give a complete list of the relevant literature here. For some reviews of this debate, see David Shambaugh, "Containment or Engagement of China? Calculating Beijing's Responses," International Security 21, no. 2 (1996): 180-209; Owen Harries, "A Year of Debating China," The National Interest 58 (1999/2000): 141-147; James Morris, "Containment or Engagement: America's Choice," Pacifica Review 12, no. 2 (2000): 197-201; and Enbao Wang, "Engagement or Containment? Americans' Views on China and Sino-US Relations, "Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 31 (2002): 381-392.
2. It is impossible to give a complete list of the relevant literature here. For some reviews of this debate, see David Shambaugh, "Containment or Engagement of China? Calculating Beijing's Responses," International Security 21, no. 2 (1996): 180-209; Owen Harries, "A Year of Debating China," The National Interest 58 (1999/2000): 141-147; James Morris, "Containment or Engagement: America's Choice," Pacifica Review 12, no. 2 (2000): 197-201; and Enbao Wang, "Engagement or Containment? Americans' Views on China and Sino-US Relations, "Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 31 (2002): 381-392.
3. It is impossible to give a complete list of the relevant literature here. For some reviews of this debate, see David Shambaugh, "Containment or Engagement of China? Calculating Beijing's Responses," International Security 21, no. 2 (1996): 180-209; Owen Harries, "A Year of Debating China," The National Interest 58 (1999/2000): 141-147; James Morris, "Containment or Engagement: America's Choice," Pacifica Review 12, no. 2 (2000): 197-201; and Enbao Wang, "Engagement or Containment? Americans' Views on China and Sino-US Relations, "Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 31 (2002): 381-392.
4. It is impossible to give a complete list of the relevant literature here. For some reviews of this debate, see David Shambaugh, "Containment or Engagement of China? Calculating Beijing's Responses," International Security 21, no. 2 (1996): 180-209; Owen Harries, "A Year of Debating China," The National Interest 58 (1999/2000): 141-147; James Morris, "Containment or Engagement: America's Choice," Pacifica Review 12, no. 2 (2000): 197-201; and Enbao Wang, "Engagement or Containment? Americans' Views on China and Sino-US Relations, "Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 31 (2002): 381-392.
5. David M. Lampton, "China," Foreign Policy 110 (1998): 13.
6. R. B. J. Walker, One World, Many Worlds (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1988), p. 22.
7. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
8. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
9. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
10. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
11. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
12. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
13. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
14. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
15. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
16. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
17. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
18. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
19. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
20. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
21. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
22. Among the enormous relevant literature, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vantage Books, 1978); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography, and Policy Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim George, Discourses of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Michael J. Shapiro, Violent Cartographies: Mapping Cultures of War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Nathanson, "The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 443-483; and Simon Dalby, "Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union As Other," Alternatives 13, no. 4 (1988): 415-442. For more philosophical inquiries into these themes, see, for example, Emmanuel Levinas, Time and the Other and Additional Essays, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Penn.: Duquesne University Press, 1987); Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
23. In varying degrees, there are a few notable exceptions at the margin of or outside the mainstream U.S. China studies community. See, for example, Richard Madsen, China and the American Dream: A Moral Inquiry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Bruce Cumings, "The World Shakes China," The National Interest 43 (1996): 28-41; Tani E. Barlow, ed., Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997); and Peter Hays Gries, "A 'China Threat'? Power and Passion in Chinese 'Face Nationalism,'" World Affairs 162, no. 2 (1999): 63-75.
24. In varying degrees, there are a few notable exceptions at the margin of or outside the mainstream U.S. China studies community. See, for example, Richard Madsen, China and the American Dream: A Moral Inquiry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Bruce Cumings, "The World Shakes China," The National Interest 43 (1996): 28-41; Tani E. Barlow, ed., Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997); and Peter Hays Gries, "A 'China Threat'? Power and Passion in Chinese 'Face Nationalism,'" World Affairs 162, no. 2 (1999): 63-75.
25. In varying degrees, there are a few notable exceptions at the margin of or outside the mainstream U.S. China studies community. See, for example, Richard Madsen, China and the American Dream: A Moral Inquiry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Bruce Cumings, "The World Shakes China," The National Interest 43 (1996): 28-41; Tani E. Barlow, ed., Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997); and Peter Hays Gries, "A 'China Threat'? Power and Passion in Chinese 'Face Nationalism,'" World Affairs 162, no. 2 (1999): 63-75.
26. In varying degrees, there are a few notable exceptions at the margin of or outside the mainstream U.S. China studies community. See, for example, Richard Madsen, China and the American Dream: A Moral Inquiry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Bruce Cumings, "The World Shakes China," The National Interest 43 (1996): 28-41; Tani E. Barlow, ed., Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997); and Peter Hays Gries, "A 'China Threat'? Power and Passion in Chinese 'Face Nationalism,'" World Affairs 162, no. 2 (1999): 63-75.
27. Quoted in Evelyn Iritani and Maria Dickerson, "People's Republic of Products," Los Angeles Times, October 20, 2002: www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china1oct20.story.
28. I b i d.
29. Richard Bernstein and Ross H. Munro, The Coming Conflict with China (New York: Knopf, 1997), pp. 132-135.
30. Harry Harding, "The Concept of "Greater China": Themes, Variations and Reservations," in David Shambaugh, ed., Greater China: The Next Superpower? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 31.
31. Denny Roy, "Rising China and U.S. Interests: Inevitable vs. Contingent Hazards," Orbis 47, no. 1 (2003): 130.
32. Congressional Record, March 14, 2002. www.fas.org/irp/congress/ 2002_cr/h031402.
33. Richard K. Betts and Thomas J. Christensen, "China: Getting the Questions Right," The National Interest 66 (2000/2001): 17.
34. Warren I. Cohen, America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations, 3d ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 3.
35. Harry Harding, China's Second Revolution: Reform after Mao (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1987), p. 258. For a study of the "Sinocentric" world order, see John K. Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968).
36. Harry Harding, China's Second Revolution: Reform after Mao (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1987), p. 258. For a study of the "Sinocentric" world order, see John K. Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968).
37. Bernstein and Munro, note 8, p. 18.
38. Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the Horizon? China's Threat to East Asian Security," International Security 19, no. 1 (1994): 157.
39. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (London: Touchstone Books, 1996), p. 94.
40. John F. Copper, "The 'Glue' That Holds China Together," The World & I 17, no. 7 (2002): 20-25.
41. Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).
42. Warren I. Cohen, "China's Strategic Culture," Atlantic Monthly 279, no. 3 (1997): 105.
43. Kenneth Lieberthal, "A New China Strategy," Foreign Affairs 74, no. 6 (1995): 36; Nicholas D. Kristof, "The Rise of China," Foreign Affairs 72, no. 5 (1993): 74.
44. Kenneth Lieberthal, "A New China Strategy," Foreign Affairs 74, no. 6 (1995): 36; Nicholas D. Kristof, "The Rise of China," Foreign Affairs 72, no. 5 (1993): 74.
45. Betts and Christensen, note 12, p. 23. For the Germany analogy, see also Edward Friedman, The Challenge of a Rising China: Another Germany?" in Robert J. Lieber, ed., Eagle Adrift: American Foreign Policy at the End of the Century (New York: Longmans, 1997), pp. 215-245.
46. See Bernstein and Munro, note 8, p. 216.
47. Huntington, note 17, p. 169.
48. Betts and Christensen, note 12, p. 18.
49. Quoted in Siobhán McEvoy-Levy, American Exceptionalism and US Foreign Policy: Public Diplomacy at the End of the Cold War (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 24.
50. Colin L. Powell, "U.S. Forces: Challenges Ahead," Foreign Affairs 71, no. 5 (1992): 32.
51. See Samuel P. Huntington, "The Lonely Superpower," Foreign Affairs 78, no. 2 (1999): 37.
52. David E. Sanger, "Allies Hear Sour Notes in 'Axis of Evil' Chorus," New York Times, February 17, 2002, p. A18. See also Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990); and Owen Harries, ed., America's Purpose: New Visions of U.S. Foreign Policy (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1991).
53. David E. Sanger, "Allies Hear Sour Notes in 'Axis of Evil' Chorus," New York Times, February 17, 2002, p. A18. See also Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990); and Owen Harries, ed., America's Purpose: New Visions of U.S. Foreign Policy (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1991).
54. David E. Sanger, "Allies Hear Sour Notes in 'Axis of Evil' Chorus," New York Times, February 17, 2002, p. A18. See also Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990); and Owen Harries, ed., America's Purpose: New Visions of U.S. Foreign Policy (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1991).
55. Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), p. 33.
56. Quoted in Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1936), p. 3.
57. Quoted ibid., p. 21.
58. Jean Baudrillard, America (London: Verso, 1988), p. 77.
59. Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History," The National Interest 16 (1989): 3-18.
60. Michael H. Hunt, "Chinese Foreign Relations in Historical Perspective," in Harry Harding, ed., China's Foreign Relations in the 1980s (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), pp. 40-41.
61. Fabian, note 4, p. 18.
62. See Daniel J. Boorstin, America and the Image of Europe: Reflections on American Thought (New York: Meridian Books, 1960), pp. 19-20; Jack P. Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America: Exceptionalism and Identity from 1492 to 1800 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 122; and Samuel P. Huntington, "The Erosion of American National Interests," Foreign Affairs 76, no. 5 (1997): 29-31.
63. See Daniel J. Boorstin, America and the Image of Europe: Reflections on American Thought (New York: Meridian Books, 1960), pp. 19-20; Jack P. Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America: Exceptionalism and Identity from 1492 to 1800 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 122; and Samuel P. Huntington, "The Erosion of American National Interests," Foreign Affairs 76, no. 5 (1997): 29-31.
64. See Daniel J. Boorstin, America and the Image of Europe: Reflections on American Thought (New York: Meridian Books, 1960), pp. 19-20; Jack P. Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America: Exceptionalism and Identity from 1492 to 1800 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 122; and Samuel P. Huntington, "The Erosion of American National Interests," Foreign Affairs 76, no. 5 (1997): 29-31.
65. However, as terrorism proves too elusive to take on, and some of its reified symbols (e.g., Saddam Hussein) can be relatively easily dealt with, China might again emerge as the "preferred" enemy. Indeed, even during the height of the war on terrorism, both the Pentagon's 2002 Annual Report on the Military Power of the People's Republic of China and the 2002 Report to Congress of the U.S.-China Security Review Commission painted China as a clear and present danger. See also Joseph Perkins, "The China Threat Has Not Gone Away," San Diego Union-Tribune, July 19, 2002;
66. and Lev Navrozov, "China's Threat Grows as Everyone Watches Iraq": www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/10/8/154035.
67. Steve Chan, "Relating to China: Problematic Approaches and Feasible Emphases," World Affairs 161, no. 4 (1999): 179. In this sense, this is in fact not the first time that China is seen by the United States as an abnormal, formidable other. When it emerged from its devastating civil war in 1949, shaken, vulnerable, and much weaker than it is now, China was nevertheless feared by the United States as a threat, for most people in the United States were uneasy about the facts that even after receiving so much "help" from "us," China still went its own way and that there was little they could do to change that. See John K. Fairbank, China: The People's Middle Kingdom and the U.S.A. (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1967), pp. 107-108.
68. Steve Chan, "Relating to China: Problematic Approaches and Feasible Emphases," World Affairs 161, no. 4 (1999): 179. In this sense, this is in fact not the first time that China is seen by the United States as an abnormal, formidable other. When it emerged from its devastating civil war in 1949, shaken, vulnerable, and much weaker than it is now, China was nevertheless feared by the United States as a threat, for most people in the United States were uneasy about the facts that even after receiving so much "help" from "us," China still went its own way and that there was little they could do to change that. See John K. Fairbank, China: The People's Middle Kingdom and the U.S.A. (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1967), pp. 107-108.
69. To counter the "China threat" argument, some scholars stress the "inherent peacefulness" of Chinese culture. See, for example, Chen Jian, "Will China's Development Threaten Asia-Pacific Security?" Security Dialogue 24, no. 2 (1993): 193-196; and Li Shaojun, "The Peaceful Orientation of Chinese Civilization: From Tradition to Reality: A Response to Those Who See China as a Menace," unpublished paper (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, 1998), pp. 1-9.
70. To counter the "China threat" argument, some scholars stress the "inherent peacefulness" of Chinese culture. See, for example, Chen Jian, "Will China's Development Threaten Asia-Pacific Security?" Security Dialogue 24, no. 2 (1993): 193-196; and Li Shaojun, "The Peaceful Orientation of Chinese Civilization: From Tradition to Reality: A Response to Those Who See China as a Menace," unpublished paper (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, 1998), pp. 1-9.
71. Betts and Christensen, note 12, p. 23.
72. Huntington, note 37, pp. 29-30.
73. Ibid., pp. 30-31.
74. See Jonathan Culler, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 56-57.
75. Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State, and War: A Theoretical Analysis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 203.
76. John Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War," International Security 15, no. 1 (1990): 12. See also Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979).
77. John Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War," International Security 15, no. 1 (1990): 12. See also Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979).
78. R. B. J. Walker, "The Subject of Security," in Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams, eds., Critical Security Studies: Concepts and Cases (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), p. 69.
79. Kurt M. Campbell, "China Watchers Fighting a Turf War of Their Own," New York Times, May 20, 2000, p. B13.
80. Thomas J. Christensen, "Posing Problems Without Catching Up: China's Rise and Challenges for U.S. Security Policy," International Security 25, no. 4 (2001): 5.
81. James Chace and Caleb Carr, America Invulnerable: The Quest for Absolute Security from 1812 to Star Wars (New York: Summit Books, 1988), p. 12.
82. Quoted in James Der Derian, "The Value of Security: Hobbes, Marx, Nietzsche, and Baudrillard," in David Campbell and Michael Dillon, eds., The Political Subject of Violence (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p. 95.
83. Benjamin Schwarz, "Permanent Interests, Endless Threats: Cold War Continuities and NATO Enlargement," World Policy Journal 14, no. 3 (1997): 30.
84. Bernstein and Munro, note 8, p. 21.
85. Betts and Christensen, note 12, pp. 19, 22, 26 (emphases added).
86. Samuel S. Kim, "China," in Edward A. Kolodziej and Roger E. Kanet, eds., Coping with Conflict after the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 135.
87. Cumings, note 5, p. 39.
88. Robert Kagan, "China's No. 1 Enemy," New York Times, May 11, 1999, p. A23 (emph. added).
89. But as Owen Harries observed, when one did go to China in the aftermath of the incident, one could immediately grasp why the Chinese did not simply "accept" NATO's "accident" explanations (as Robert Kagan strongly believes they should have done). Harries wrote that when he passed through Hong Kong, he "did not meet a person there - either Chinese or Western - who accepted the accident thesis": Harries, note 1, p. 145.
90. Bernstein and Munro, note 8, pp. 15, 36.
91. Ibid., pp. 4, 11, 53 (emph. added).
92. Betts and Christensen, note 12, pp. 18, 28.
93. Yongjin Zhang, "Problematizing China's Security: Sociological Insights," Pacifica Review 13, no. 3 (2001): 241.
94. Indeed, many U.S. analysts often claim to be the knowing ones on the subject of China. For example, according to Lucian Pye, it is the West that has long been able to know where Chinese interests lie, whereas, unfortunately, the (irrational) Chinese not only are unable to recognize their own interests but have frequently frustrated Western well-wishers who want only to help them out. As Pye puts it: "From the time of Lord Palmerston's efforts to get the Chinese to accept the conventions of Western diplomacy, to President Bush's humiliating attempts to alter the behavior of Beijing's current rulers, China seems impelled to reject the helping hand and to act in ways that seem perversely self-damaging in the eyes of those who believe they have that country's interests at heart": Lucian W. Pye, "China: Erratic State, Frustrated Society," Foreign Affairs 69, no. 4 (1990): 56.
95. Said, note 4, p. 54.
96. For instance, most of China's neighbors, while presumably more vulnerable to a "China threat" if there is one, do not share the U.S. alarmist view. See Herbert Yee and Ian Storey, eds., The China Threat: Perceptions, Myths, and Reality (London: Routledge Curzon, 2002).
97. The dominant U.S. IR literature on China does not, for example, allow us to see the possibility that China's aggressiveness may have resulted from its heartfelt vulnerability in the face of U.S. containment, rather than from its increased sense of powerfulness. See Zhang, note 62, pp. 241-253.
98. Schwarz, note 52, p. 29.
99. Charles Krauthammer, "Why We Must Contain China," Time, July 31, 1995, p. 72.
100. Bernstein and Munro, note 8, p. 203.
101. The main components of Bernstein and Munro's management policy include using most-favored-nation status as a leverage to pressure China, supporting Chinese dissident groups, embarrassing China by lending sympathy to Taiwan and Tibetan exile leaders, maintaining and upgrading the U.S. military presence in Asia, strengthening Japan and the U.S.-Japan alliance, and, last but not the least, courting the younger, more modern generation in China: ibid., pp. 205-221.
102. Betts and Christensen, note 12, p. 28.
103. See, for example, Bernstein and Munro, note 8; Ross Munro, "Taiwan: What China Really Wants," National Review 51, no. 19 (1999): 45-49; Denny Roy, "Tensions in the Taiwan Strait," Survival 42, no. 1 (2000): 76-96; Evan A. Feigenbaum, "China's Challenge to Pax Americana,"
104. See, for example, Bernstein and Munro, note 8; Ross Munro, "Taiwan: What China Really Wants," National Review 51, no. 19 (1999): 45-49; Denny Roy, "Tensions in the Taiwan Strait," Survival 42, no. 1 (2000): 76-96; Evan A. Feigenbaum, "China's Challenge to Pax Americana," Washington Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2001): 31-43; Allen S. Whiting, "China's Use of Force, 1950-96, Taiwan," International Security 26, no. 2 (2001): 103-131; Robert S. Ross, "Navigating the Taiwan Strait: Deterrence, Escalation Dominance, and U.S.-China Relations," International Security 27, no. 2 (2002): 48-85; and Thomas J. Christensen, "The Contemporary Security Dilemma: Deterring a Taiwan Conflict," Washington Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2002): 7-21.
105. See, for example, Bernstein and Munro, note 8; Ross Munro, "Taiwan: What China Really Wants," National Review 51, no. 19 (1999): 45-49; Denny Roy, "Tensions in the Taiwan Strait," Survival 42, no. 1 (2000): 76-96; Evan A. Feigenbaum, "China's Challenge to Pax Americana," Washington Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2001): 31-43; Allen S. Whiting, "China's Use of Force, 1950-96, Taiwan," International Security 26, no. 2 (2001): 103-131; Robert S. Ross, "Navigating the Taiwan Strait: Deterrence, Escalation Dominance, and U.S.-China Relations," International Security 27, no. 2 (2002): 48-85; and Thomas J. Christensen, "The Contemporary Security Dilemma: Deterring a Taiwan Conflict," Washington Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2002): 7-21.
106. See, for example, Bernstein and Munro, note 8; Ross Munro, "Taiwan: What China Really Wants," National Review 51, no. 19 (1999): 45-49; Denny Roy, "Tensions in the Taiwan Strait," Survival 42, no. 1 (2000): 76-96; Evan A. Feigenbaum, "China's Challenge to Pax Americana," Washington Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2001): 31-43; Allen S. Whiting, "China's Use of Force, 1950-96, Taiwan," International Security 26, no. 2 (2001): 103-131; Robert S. Ross, "Navigating the Taiwan Strait: Deterrence, Escalation Dominance, and U.S.-China Relations," International Security 27, no. 2 (2002): 48-85; and Thomas J. Christensen, "The Contemporary Security Dilemma: Deterring a Taiwan Conflict," Washington Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2002): 7-21.
107. See, for example, Bernstein and Munro, note 8; Ross Munro, "Taiwan: What China Really Wants," National Review 51, no. 19 (1999): 45-49; Denny Roy, "Tensions in the Taiwan Strait," Survival 42, no. 1 (2000): 76-96; Evan A. Feigenbaum, "China's Challenge to Pax Americana," Washington Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2001): 31-43; Allen S. Whiting, "China's Use of Force, 1950-96, Taiwan," International Security 26, no. 2 (2001): 103-131; Robert S. Ross, "Navigating the Taiwan Strait: Deterrence, Escalation Dominance, and U.S.-China Relations," International Security 27, no. 2 (2002): 48-85; and Thomas J. Christensen, "The Contemporary Security Dilemma: Deterring a Taiwan Conflict," Washington Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2002): 7-21.
108. See, for example, Bernstein and Munro, note 8; Ross Munro, "Taiwan: What China Really Wants," National Review 51, no. 19 (1999): 45-49; Denny Roy, "Tensions in the Taiwan Strait," Survival 42, no. 1 (2000): 76-96; Evan A. Feigenbaum, "China's Challenge to Pax Americana," Washington Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2001): 31-43; Allen S. Whiting, "China's Use of Force, 1950-96, Taiwan," International Security 26, no. 2 (2001): 103-131; Robert S. Ross, "Navigating the Taiwan Strait: Deterrence, Escalation Dominance, and U.S.-China Relations," International Security 27, no. 2 (2002): 48-85; and Thomas J. Christensen, "The Contemporary Security Dilemma: Deterring a Taiwan Conflict," Washington Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2002): 7-21.
109. The Taiwan Relations Act considers "any effort to determine the future of Taiwan by other than peaceful means, including by boycotts or embargoes, a threat to the peace and security of the Western Pacific area and of grave concern to the United States": www.taipei.org/tra/TRA-Law.
110. Quoted in Martin L. Lasater, The Taiwan Conundrum in U.S. China Policy (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2000), p. 15.
111. Chalmers Johnson, "Containing China: U.S. and Japan Drift Toward Disaster," Japan Quarterly 43, no. 4 (1996): 10.
112. David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 366.
113. Song Qiang, Zhang Zangzang, Qiao Bian, et al., Zhongguo keyi shuo bu (China Can Say No) (Hong Kong: Mingbao chubanshe, 1996).
114. Quoted in Johnson, note 75, p. 12.
115. Bernstein and Munro, note 8, p. 6. See also Andrew Nathan, "China's Goals in the Taiwan Strait," China Journal 36 (1996): 87-93.
116. Bernstein and Munro, note 8, p. 6. See also Andrew Nathan, "China's Goals in the Taiwan Strait," China Journal 36 (1996): 87-93.
117. Chih-yu Shih, "National Security Is a Western Concern," China Journal 36 (1996): 106-107.
118. James Lilley and Carl Ford, "China's Military: A Second Opinion," The National Interest 57 (1999): 76-77.
119. www.uscc.gov/anrp02.
120. Richard Lindley and Chris Oxley, Dangerous Straits, PBS Frontline program, October 18, 2001: www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/china/etc/script (emph. added).
121. Whiting, note 72, p. 103.
122. Michael R. Gordon, "A Dangerous Game," New York Times, April 3, 2001, p. A1.
123. Fox Butterfield, "China's Demand for Apology Is Rooted in Tradition," New York Times, April 7, 2001, p. A6.
124. Robert Kagan and William Kristol, "A National Humiliation," Weekly Standard 6, no. 30 (2001): 11 (emph. added).
125. Michael R. Gordon, "Breathing Room for Taiwan: U.S. Weapons Can Stave Off Threat," New York Times, April 25, 2001, p. A8.
126. Johnson, note 75, p. 15.
127. Elisabeth Rosenthal, "Espionage? By the U.S.? China Prefers to Stay Quiet," New York Times, January 23, 2002, p. A5.
128. Yongjin Zhang and Greg Austin, eds., Power and Responsibility in Chinese Foreign Policy (Canberra: Asia Pacific Press, 2001).
129. Alastair lain Johnston, "Learning versus Adaptation: Explaining Change in China's Arms Control Policy in the 1980s and 1990s," China Journal 35 (1996): 27-61.
130. Johnson, note 75, p. 12.
131. Quoted in Lampton, note 76, p. 356.