Theatre reform as censorship: Censoring traditional theatre in China in the early 1950s

Theatre Journal

Volumn 61, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 387-406

  Liu, Siyuan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77349116374     PISSN: 01922882     EISSN: 1086332X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tj.0.0245     Document Type: Review

References (64)

1. Fu Jin, "Li Ruihuan he 'Jingju yinpeixiang' de wenhua gongxian" (Li Ruihuan and the cultural significance of the "sound matched with images" project), Bolan qunshu (Well-Read) 9 (2007): 6
2. Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 19-20
3. Since the introduction of Western-style spoken drama at the turn of the twentieth century, Chinese theatre has been divided into two major systems: the traditional song-and-dance theatre collectively known as xiqu, and the Western-style spoken drama (huaju). For issues concerning xiqu categorization, see Jiang Xingyu, "Xiqu juzhong de hanyi jiqi jishu wenti" (The connotation of xiqu genres and their counting methodology), Xiqu yishu (Theatre Arts) 1 (1994): 38-40
4. Zhongguo jingju yinpeixiang jingcui - Biyu zan (Selected Chinese Jingju Sound Matched with Images - The Emerald Hairpin) (Tianjin: Tianjin wenhua yishu yinxiang chubanshe, 2001)
5. Wang Yongyun et al., "Gonghua 'Yinpeixiang'" (Forum on "sound matched with images"), Zhongguo jingju (Chinese Jingju) 3 (2002): 25. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are mine
6. Editorial, "You jihua you buzhou de jinxing jiuju gaige" (We must methodically and systematically reform old theatre), Renmin ribao (People's Daily), 11 November 1948
7. For Mao's involvement in writing the editorial, see Zhou Yang, "Jinyibu gexin he fazhan xiqu yishu" (Make further renovation and development of xiqu art), Wenyi yanjiu (Literature and Arts Studies) 3 (1981): 4-5
8. For more information about Ming and Qing dynasties theatrical censorship, see Wang Liqi, ed., Yuan Ming Qing sandai jinhui xiaoshuo xiqu shiliao (Historical Material on the Banned and Destroyed Novels and Dramas of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties) (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1981)
9. and Ding Shumei, Zhongguo gudai jinhui xiju shilun (A Theoretical History of Ancient Chinese Banned and Destroyed Dramas) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2008)
10. For studies in English, see Fan Pen Chen, "Ethnicity and Gender in Prohibitions Related to the Performing Arts in Late Imperial China," CHINOPERL Papers 25 (2005): 35-85
11. and Fan Pen Chen, "Ritual Roots of the Theatrical Prohibitions of Late-Imperial China," Asia Major 20, no. 1 (2007): 25-44
12. Mao Zedong, "A Letter after Seeing Bishang Liangshan," in Chinese Theories of Theater and Performance from Confucius to the Present, ed. Fei Faye Chunfang (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 142
13. Editorial, People's Daily. Although the editorial qualifies this sentence as the result of "preliminary investigation of over twenty genres in Northern China Liberated District," similar phrasing against all xiqu plays can be found in other censorship announcements, as well as in the 5 May 1951 directive. Therefore it apparently reflected a judgment on the complete xiqu repertoire
14. Zhang Te, "Jizhong chengli jiuju yuanjiu weiyuanhui, xuanding keyan jiuju baiyishi chu, xi gedi miaohui zhuyi shencha xuanyan" (Central Hebei formed old plays study committee, selected 110 old plays permitted for performance, regional temple festivals to take note to examine and make selections), Jizhong daobao (Central Hebei Review), 28 January 1946
15. Zhang Geng et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Hebei juan (Annals of Chinese Theatre Hebei Volume) (Beijing: Zhongguo ISBN zhongxin, 1993), 712-18
16. "Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun Beiping junshi guanzhi weiyuanhui wenhua jieguan weiyuanhui jinyan wushiwu chu hanyou dusu de jiuju" (The Chinese People's Liberation Army Beiping military control committee cultural acceptance and management committee bans fifty-five poisonous old plays), Beiping xinmin bao (Beiping New Citizens), 25 March 1949
17. Zhang Geng et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Liaoning juan (Annals of Chinese Theatre Liaoning Volume) (Beijing: Zhongguo ISBN zhongxin, 1994), 32
18. Zhongguo xiqu zhi Liaoning juan (Annals of Chinese Theatre Liaoning Volume) Ibid., 513
19. Zhang Geng et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Beijing juan (Annals of Chinese Theatre Beijing Volume) (Beijing: Zhongguo ISBN zhongxin, 1999), 1314
20. Wenhua bu, "Wenhua bu guanyu zhizhi shangyan 'jinxi' de tongzhi" (Cultural Ministry directive on prohibiting the performance of "banned plays"), available at http://www.ipo.gansu.gov.cn/zlzx/images/ ZZQFJXGFG/1447.htm
21. Sun Jiazheng, "Wenhua bu guanyu feizhi bufen guizhang he guifanxing wenjian de jueding" (Cultural Ministry decision on annuling some regulations and regulatory documents), available at http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/ content/2008/content-1065472.htm
22. Zhang et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Beijing juan, 74
23. Zhang et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Liaoning juan, 509
24. Zhang Geng et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Shaanxi juan (Annals of Chinese Theatre Shaanxi Volume) (Beijing: Zhongguo ISBN zhongxin, 1995), 873. The plays singled out in the report are Wang Baochuan, Wang Chun'e, and Silang Visits His Mother (Silang tanmu). All three were among the most famous jingju plays. Wang Baochuan is about a woman who waits for eighteen years in poverty until her husband's glorious return, and Wang Chun'e is about a concubine refusing to remarry after her husband's death in order to raise their son. Both these plays could be construed as spreading "feudal ideology." Silang Visits His Mother is about a Song Dynasty general who, after being captured by a minority state in northern China and marrying the princess, pays his mother a brief visit when she commands the Chinese army in another war between the two states. The play was cited in the 1948 People's Daily editorial as an example of "national/racial disloyalty."
25. Wang Du, "Huanying kaifang jinxi" (Welcome the opening of banned plays), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 11 (1957): 14
26. For a study of how this anecdote became a story, see Zhan Xiaoyong, "Cong yishi dao xiaoshuo - lun 'Mafeng nü' gushi de qiyuan yu fazhan" (From anecdote to novel writing - "The Leper Girl": The story and its origin and development), Nankai xuebao (Nankai University Journal) 5 (2001): 69-74
27. He Haisheng, "'Mafeng nü' shi yichu huaixi" ("The Leper Girl" is a bad play), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 4 (1954): 26
28. 'Mafeng nü' shi yichu huaixi, "The Leper Girl" is a bad play), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 4 (1954): 26.Ibid
29. Zhang Zhen, "Fandui yan huaixi" (Against staging bad plays), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 4 (1954): 27
30. He, "'Mafeng nü' shi yichu huaixi," 27
31. Bianjibu (Editorial board), "Fandui yan huaixi" (Against staging bad plays), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 5 (1954): 12
32. Zhou Enlai, "Zhongyang renmin zhengfu zhengwuyuan guanyu xiqu gaige gongzuo de zhishi" (Central People's Government State Council directive on theatrical reform), Renmin ribao (People's Daily), 7 May 1951
33. Ma Yanxiang, "1951 nian de xiqu gaige gongzuo he cunzai de wenti" (Xiqu reform and existing problems in 1951), Renmin xiju (People's Theatre) 3, no. 8 (1951): 44
34. See the articles on this topic in Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine), issues 10 and 11 in 1956
35. and Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine), issues issue 11 in 1957
36. Liu Ying and Liu Wei, "20 shiji 50 niandai Beijing dui minjian jutuan he yiren de guanli" (The management of private theatre companies and practitioners in Beijing in the 1950s), Beijing dangshi (Beijing CCP Archives) 5 (2006): 47
37. This situation was made public in early 1957 when the CCP briefly allowed criticism. See Qiu Shengrong, "Dui Zhongguo Jingju Yuan de jidian yijian" (Several complaints against the Chinese jingju theatre), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 10 (1957): 41
38. and Hu Jinzhao, "Zhongguo Jingju Yuan you naxie maodun?" (What problems haunt the Chinese jingju theatre?), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 10 (1957): 32
39. A 1955 article in Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) accuses Shanghai actress Wu Zhengshuang of staging The Treasure Pouch in a touring show in Anhui province, "even though Mr. Cheng Yanqiu has temporarily stopped staging it"; see Chen Shi, "Wu Zhengshuang de zuofeng yinggai gaibian" (Wu Zhengshuang's ways should change), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 3 (1955): 41
40. Zhang Yihe, Lingren wangshi: xiegei bukanxi de ren kan (Recollections of Actors - for Those Who Do Not Go to the Theatre) (Changsha: Hunan wenyi chu banshe, 2006), 347
41. Zhang Songjia, "'Yibu' erbu 'huanxing' - Mei Lanfang tan jiuju gaige" ("Shifting the steps" without "altering the form" - Mei Lanfang on reforming old plays), Jinbu ribao (Progress Daily), 3 November 1949
42. Two unpublished articles have surfaced in recent years, one by Ma Yanxiang and the other by A Jia, who was a reformed jingju veteran from Yan'an and later general director (zong daoyan) of the Chinese Jingju Company. Ma's letter is included in Ma Shaobo, "Guanyu suowei Mei Lanfang tichu 'yubu erbu huanxing' de zhenxiang" (The truth behind the so-called Mei Lanfang's proposal of "shifiting steps without altering form"), Zhongguo xiju (Chinese Theatre) 11 (2006): 33-35
43. A Jia's article is in Li Chunxi, ed., A Jia xiju lunji (Selected Essays on Theatre by A Jia) (Beijing: Zhongguo xiju chubanshe, 2005), 19-26
44. Zhang Songjia and Wang Kaizeng, "Xiang jiuju gaige qiantu maijin - ji Mei Lanfang li Jin qianxi Jinshi Xiqu Gongzuozhe Xiehui yaoji de jiuju zuotanhui" (Marching toward the future of old plays reform - notes from the old plays forum hosted by Tianjin Xiqu Artists Association on the eve of Mei Lanfang's departure from Tianjin), Jinbu ribao (Progress Daily), 30 November 1949. There are two accounts of this incident with opposing viewpoints, one from Zhang Songjia, the journalist who wrote both the initial report and the subsequent report on the forum, and the other from Ma Shaobo, then party secretary of the Xiqu Improvement Bureau. Both rely on Zhang's two original reports, plus additional documents and recollections
45. For Ma's view, see Ma, "Guanyu suowei Mei Lanfang tichu 'yubu erbu huanxing' de zhenxiang," Zhongguo xiju (Chinese Theatre) 6-12 (2006), 1 (2007)
46. For example, Revenge of the Murdered Son and Two Nails were repeatedly banned in Shanghai during the late Qing Dynasty (1872-1911) according to the Shenbao newspaper. Revenge of the Murdered Son, Two Nails, and Cleaving the Coffin were included in censorship lists in Fengtian (Shenyang today) in 1913 and Tianjin in 1915. Cleaving the Coffin was again banned in Tianjin in 1946. See Ding, Zhongguo gudai jinhui xiju shilun, 336-40
47. and Zhang Geng et al., eds., Zhongguo xiqu zhi Tianjin juan (Annals of Chinese Theatre Tianjin Volume) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1990), 19, 33
48. Zou Huilan, "Xiang Yu Lianquan xiansheng xuexi" (Studying acting from Mr. Yu Lianquan), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 12 (1957): 23
49. Xiao Cuihua, Jingju huadan biaoyan yishu (Jingju Huadan Performance Techniques) (Beijing: Beijng cubanshe, 1962). Among these plays, Picking up the Jade Bracelet is a largely pantomimic one-act about a young girl; Capturing is, in fact, none other than one of the banned plays, Capturing Sanlang, with The Black Dragon House being its prequel about the same woman's murder before her return as a ghost
50. The only exception was an "internal observational performance" (neibu guanmo yanchu) in early 1957; see Qu Liuyi, "Mantan guixi" (Random thoughts on ghost plays), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 7 (1957): 6-7
51. Cheng Yanqiu, Cheng Yanqiu yanchu juben xuanji (Collected Plays Performed by Cheng Yuanqiu) (Beijing: Zhongguo xiju chubanshe, 1958), 448-50
52. The nationally banned play was The Black Bowl (Wupen ji, volume 91)
53. The collection also included several plays in the March 1949 Beijing censorship list that subsequently vanished from the stage, including Eighteen Pulls (Shiba che) and The Double Henpecked (aka The Double Bench Bearers [Shuang beideng]), volume 31
54. There are several versions of this saying recorded in various articles. They all start with the same first line followed by several well-known plays. See, for example, Li Zhou, "Runwu xiwusheng (1) - jinian 'Wenhua Bu diyijie xiqu yanyuan jiangxihui' sishi zhounian" (Quietly moisturing the world - in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the "First Cultural Ministry Xiqu Actors Symposium"), Xiqu yishu (Xiqu Art) 4 (1995): 93
55. and Fu Jin, Ershi shiji Zhongguo xiju daolun (Essays on Twentieth-Century Chinese Theatre) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2004), 255
56. Huang Yuan, "Kunqu 'Shiwu guan' bianyan shimo" (The complete story of the adaptation and performance of kunqu "Fifteen Strings of Cash"), Xinwenhua shiliao (Historical Materials of New Culture) 1 (1995): 13
57. Huang, "Kunqu 'Shiwu guan' bianyan shimo," 13
58. Fu Jin, Xin Zhongguo xiju shi, 1949-2000 (A History of Chinese Drama, 1949-2000) (Changsha: Hunan meishu chubanshe, 2002), 46
59. In one case, a Hubei-province hanju - a popular and ancient local genre - troupe superimposed the play onto another well-known piece, The Famen Temple (Famen si), simply because of plot similarities, thus eliminating some of the latter play's best-known plots, movements, speeches, and arias "to the great consternation of the actors." See Da Ke, "Fangzhi 'Shiwu guan' hua" (Guard against the proliferation of "Fifteen Strings of Cash"), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 6 (1957): 9
60. In Shanghai, theatre occupancy rates for private companies declined from 72.6 percent in 1953, to 62.7 percent in 1954, to 55.7 percent in 1955; see Zhu Yinghui, Dangdai xiqu sishi nian (Forty Years of Contemporary Xiqu) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1993), 163
61. Yu Zhonghua, "Pingju minjian yiren de shenshu" (Complaints from pingju artists in nongovernmental companies), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 10 (1957): 17
62. Editorial, "Kaifang jumu, tichang jingsai" (Open up the repertoire, encourage competition), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 9 (1957): 4
63. As mentioned in footnote 48 above, Shanghai actress Wu Zhengshuang staged Cheng Yanqiu's banned play The Treasure Pouch in a touring show in Anhui province. The same article also criticizes Wu's flirty performance style in another play. Similarly, the Beijing-based actress Zhao Yanxia was targeted several times for her erotic performances while touring in the provinces. See He Haisheng "Zaixiang Zhao Yanxia qiao yici jingzhong" (Another warning bell to Zhao Yanxia), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 11 (1954): 14-15
64. and Jizhe (Correspondent), "Gedi baokan zhankai dui Zhao Yanxia seqing xialiu biaoyan de piping" (Local newspapers and magazines criticize Zhao Yanxia's pornographic and base performance), Xiju bao (Theatre Magazine) 1 (1955): 52-53