Mining sector regulation in Quebec and Canada: Is a redefinition of asymmetrical relations possible?

Studies in Political Economy

Volumn , Issue 84, 2009, Pages 47-78

  Laforce, Myriam ^a   Lapointe, Ugo ^a   Lebuis, Véonique ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 76949102629     PISSN: 07078552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/19187033.2009.11675046     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. This article is part of a research project entitled Gouvernance, institutions politiques et contribution du sccteur minier au développement: leçons à partir de l'expérience canadienne. The project is financed by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) directed by Professor Bonnie Campbell of the Department of Political Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) and Professor Bruno Sarrasin of the Department of Urban and Tourist Studies, UQAM. Based on a political economy perspective, this project explores to what extent, with what effect, and under what political and institutional conditions can the strategies of investors reinforce and promote the development strategies of affected local communities. This study draws notably on the analysis of processes that led to the signing of specific agreements between mining companies and First Nations communities in two regions of Canada in the 1990s, and involving the Raglan (Québec) and Ekati (Northwest Territories) mining projects.
2. The authors wish to thank John Bluethner and Mark Stout, the translators of this article, as well as Bonnie Campbell, Bruno Sarrasin, David Szablowski, and Djifa Ahado for their valuable contributions.
3. André Lemieux, "Canada's Global Mining Presence", in Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Minerals Yearbook (Ottawa: 2005), p. 7.1.
4. See the report of the Extractive Industries Review of the World Bank, which quotes a partnership initiative involving the Canadian mining industry, governments, First Nations, workers, and environmental groups (Extractive Industry Review (EIR), Volume 1: Striking a Better Balance. The World Bank Group and Extractive Industries. Final Report of the Extractive Industries Review (Jakarta and Washington, DC: The World Bank Group and Extractive Industries, 2003), (accessed 15 July 2008).
5. Canada, Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Fourteenth Report: Mining In Developing Countries-Corporate Social Responsibility, 38th Parliament, 1st session (Ottawa: House of Common, 2005);
6. Advisory Group Report, National Roundtables on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and the Canadian Extractive Industry in Developing Countries (29 March 2007).
7. We shall use the generic term "positions", which implies an active process that is specific to the actors within a political space in which they put forward different strategies that aim to defend what they perceive as their interests, determined in part by the values they hold. These notions are developed more fully in the first section of the article.
8. On this question, see, especially, Susan Strange, States and Markets 2nd ed. (London and New York: Continuum, 1994);
9. Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996);
10. Susan Strange, "International Political Economy: Beyond Economics and International Relations", Économies et Sociétés - Relations économiques Internationales 34 (1998), pp. 3-24;
11. Christian Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation? Une introduction aux approches d'économie politique Internationale", Économies et Sociétés - Relations économiques Internationales 34 (1998), pp. 25-68.
12. This analysis is essentially drawn from David Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles. Mining Communities and the World Bank (Oxford and Portland: Hart Publishing, 2007).
13. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 45.
14. On this theory, see Stephen D. Krasner, (ed.), International Regimes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983);
15. Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony-Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984);
16. John G. Ruggie, "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order", International Organization 36/2 (1982), pp. 195-231;
17. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence (Toronto: Brown, 1997).
18. Susan Strange, "Cave! Hic Dragones: A Critique of Regime Analysis", International Organization 36/2 (1982), pp. 337-354.
19. Keohane and Nye, Power and Interdependence, p. 19.
20. Krasner, International Regimes, p. 2.
21. Émilie Revil, "L'OMC et le régime commercial multilatéral: analyse en trois temps de leurs répercussions sur la protection de l'environnement" (Master's thesis: Université du Québec à Montréal, 2001), p. 104 (our translation).
22. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 303.
23. Ibid., p. 304.
24. Gérard Kebabdjian, Les théories de l'économie politique internationale (Paris: Seuil, 1999), p. 137 (our translation).
25. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", pp. 33-37.
26. Strange, "International Political Economy", p. 10.
27. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", p. 25.
28. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", p. 49.
29. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", p. 54 (our translation).
30. Strange, The Retreat of the State, p. 17.
31. Roger Morgan, Jochen Lorentzen, Anna Leander, and Stefano Guzzini, "New Ideas for a Strange World: Mélanges for Susan", in Roger Morgan, Jochen Lorentzen, Anna Leander, and Stefano Guzzini, (eds.), New Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World: Essays for Susan Strange (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 11.
32. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", p. 45 (our translation).
33. Chavagneux identifies, among the fundamental values that can be implemented, the following examples: prosperity and wealth, justice and equality, security, order and stability, liberty and freedom to choose (Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", p. 58).
34. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maîtriser la mondialisation?", p. 53 (our translation).
35. David C. Earnest, Louis Pauly, T. C. Lawton, and Amy C. Verdun, "Reflections: Blurring the Boundaries and Shaping the Agenda", in Thomas C. Lawton, James N. Rosenau, and Amy C. Verdun, (eds.), Strange Power: Shaping the Parameters of International Relations and International Political Economy (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2000), p. 415.
36. Jonathan Story, "Le système mondial de Susan Strange", Politique étrangère 2 (April-June 2001), p. 440 (our translation).
37. See Thomas C. Lawton, James N. Rosenau, and Amy C. Verdun, "Introduction: Looking Beyond the Confines", in Lawton, Rosenau, and Verdun, Strange Power, p. 10.
38. John M. Stopford, Susan Strange, and John S. Henley, Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for World Market Shares (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 14.
39. Strange, The Retreat of the State, p. 218.
40. Chavagneux, "Peut-on maitriser la mondialisation?", p. 46.
41. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 27.
42. For David Szablowski, regulation and legitimation represent "the key products of law" (Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 11).
43. Regulation depends on two different, but complementary sociolegal phenomena: "1. institutionalized processes of norm generation and associated enforcement, and 2. informal processes in which norm generation and norm compliance are closely bound together through social interaction" (p. 12).
44. In this way, regulation would take the form of regimes which, in order to function, must "project a sense of [their] own legitimacy into particular audiences" (p. 15).
45. The process of legitimation would then represent "a continuous and often imperfect conversation between law-makers and lawtakers in which ideology, attention and influence play important roles. Crucially, the process relies upon the existence of legitimating ideas among law-taking populations" (p. 20).
46. Three potential sources of perceptions of legitimacy would exist among these audiences or populations: the extent to which a decision is favourable to their interests; the extent to which that decision seems to lead to a just result according to their values; and the extent to which the decision results from a "right process" (pp. 16-17).
47. This last category would represent, according to Szablowski, the most important one for a legitimation process operating in front of large and complex audiences because it has the capacity of "generating legitimacy even where decisions may conflict with interests and values found within a target audience" (p. 20). This conceptualization of the dynamic processes of regulation and legitimation will be useful for the analysis that follows.
48. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 27.
49. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 28.
50. In this regard, Szablowski's analysis has the advantage of calling attention to the local implications of the phenomena described earlier. In throwing light on this, he invites us to include a new category of actors in the study of the dynamics intrinsic to the structure of the mining industry in Canada i.e., local communities, for the most part Aboriginal, who are potentially affected by this type of investment.
51. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 58.
52. The content of this section is in large part inspired by a Master's thesis written by Ugo Lapointe, directed by Bonnie Campbell (UQAM Department of Political Science), and codirected by Gregory Mikkelson (McGill School of Environment). This thesis is soon to be submitted to the UQAM Institut des sciences de l'environnement.
53. Barry J. Barton, Canadian Law of Mining (Calgary: Canadian Institute of Resources Law, 1993), p. 149.
54. Malcom Taggart, "The Free Entry Mineral Allocation System in Canada's North: Economics and Alternatives", Working Paper 6 (Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, Northern Minerals Program, 1998), abstract.
55. Pierre Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières et la politique minière de l'État: une analyse de leur éolution et de leur contribution au développement économique du Québec, 1867-1975" (Ph. D. diss: McGill University, 1982), pp. 100-101.
56. Jean-Paul Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois (Ottawa: University of Ottawa, 1976);
57. Denis-Claude Lamontagne and Jean Brisset des Nos, Le droit minier (Montréal: Editions Thémis, 2005).
58. The British North America Act (a.k.a. the Constitution Act) of 1867, c. 3 (G. B.) gave provinces ownership of mines and minerals (art. 109), along with legislative authority in this area.
59. Western Canada (Ontario) and Eastern Canada (Quebec) from 1840 to 1867. Note that before confederation, the claim system was introduced for the first time in British Columbia's Gold Fields Act in 1859.
60. Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières", pp. 65-66.
61. Nigel Bankes and Cheryl Sharvit, "Free Entry Mineral Regimes and Aboriginal Title", Northern Perspectives 25/3 (1998-1999), pp. 12-15;
62. Barry J. Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories (Calgary: Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, 1998); Taggart, "The Free Entry Mineral Allocation System."
63. Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, p. 17.
64. Georgius Agricola, De Re Metallica. Translated from the first Latin edition of 1556 by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover (London, The Mining Magazine, 1912), pp. 82-86;
65. Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières", p. 92.
66. Charles J. Alford, Mining Law of the British Empire (London: Charles Griffin & Company, 1906).
67. Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, p. 39.
68. Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, p. 40.
69. Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, p. 41.
70. United States, An Act Granting The Right of Way to Ditch and Canal Owners over the Public Lands, and for other Purposes (1866);
71. Quoted in Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, p. 42.
72. Lacasse, Le claim en droit quibicois, p. 41 (our translation).
73. Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, p. 17.
74. Barton, Canadian Law of Mining, p. 149.
75. Paquette, " L'extraction de matières premières," pp. 110, 546-547.
76. Lamontagne and des Nos, Le droit minier, pp. 14, 20 (our translation).
77. Barton, Canadian Law of Mining, p. 149.
78. Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières", pp. 110, 546-547 (our translation).
79. Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières", p. 110.
80. Débats sur la législature du Québec (14 juin 1982), p. 250
81. quoted in Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières", p. 149.
82. "We are free to say that, if the Government err at all at this juncture, it should rather do so on the side of the liberality to the mining interest than on any other, in view of the vast future benefits which the healthy development of that important interest under favourable conditions may be confidently expected to confer upon the Province as a whole." ("The Chaudiere Valley and Its Mineral Wealth", The Morning Chronicle de Québec (1880), pp. 60-61
83. quoted in Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières", p. 149).
84. Karen Campbell, "Undermining Our Future: How Mining's Privileged Access to Land Harms People and the Environment." Discussion Paper on the Need to Reform Mineral Tenure Law in Canada (West Coast Environmental Law Staff Counsel, January 2004); Barton, Canadian Law of Mining, Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories; Paquette, "L'extraction de matières premières."
85. Campbell, Undermining Our Future, p. 1.
86. Bankes and Sharvit, "Free Entry Mineral Regimes", p. 13 (emphasis added). Bankes and Sharvit base their observations on several studies that deal with free entry mining systems in the United Sates and Canada, and, notably, J. H. Leshy, The Mining Law: A Study in Perpetual Motion (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, 1987);
87. C. Wilkinson, Crossing the Next Meridian: Land, Water and the Future of the West (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1992);
88. R. G. Eggert, "Reforming the Rules for Mining on Federal Lands", Resources 117 (1994).
89. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 154.
90. Lacasse, Le claim en droit québécois, Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories.
91. Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories, pp. 41-42.
92. Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories, p. 39.
93. It is the Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife (formerly Energy and Ressources) who can excercise this right (Loi sur la mines, L. R. Q. Ch. M-13.1, a.82). This disposition, which was added to the Loi sur la mines in 1987, aims, it would appear, to put an end, according to Lamontagne and des Nos, "to the jurisprudence which had invalidated a judgment aimed at expropriating mining claims in order to create a park." (P. G. du Québec c. Mines Utah Ltée. J. E. 85-49 (C. A.) which confirmed J. E. 84-466 (C. S.) (our translation)). However, to the knowledge of our research team, no Minister has used these powers over the last decades.
94. Québec, Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, Titres d'exploitation (Québec, 2008), (accessed 15 July 2008).
95. Campbell, Undermining Our Future, p. 1.
96. Campbell, Undermining Our Future, p. 37.
97. Campbell, Undermining Our Future, p. 4.
98. The elements of analysis presented in this section cover, in essence, the 1980s and 1990s as a key period during which trends observed in the area of regulation of mining investments in Canada underwent changes, the effects of which continue to be felt in the 2000s. It is not our intention to minimize the importance of developments and progress since the end of the 1990s. Rather, we wish to focus on the political processes that made these developments possible.
99. Lise-Aurore Lapalme, La dimension sociale du développement durable dans l'industrie minière. Document d'information (Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada, Minerals and Metals sector, 2003), p. 12.
100. e siècle (Québec: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 2004), p. 352.
101. Andrée Boisselle, "De la consultation des peuples autochtones: Structure institutionnelle d'un dialogue appelé à renouveler la notion des droits ancestraux" (Master's thesis: Université de Montréal, 2006); Russel Lawrence Barsh, "Indigenous Peoples in the 1990s: From Object to Subject of International Law?" Harvard Human Rights Journal 7 (spring 1994), pp. 33-86.
102. Quoted in Initiative minière de Whitehorse (IMW), Rapport final du Groupe d'étude sur l'accès au territoire (L'Initiative minière de Whitehorse, 1994), p. iii.
103. Mary Louise McAllister and Cynthia Alexander, A Stake in the Future: Redefining the Canadian Mineral Industry (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997), p. x.
104. See note 33.
105. The process of reforming environmental legislation in Quebec and Canada was the focus of a great deal of criticism, which focused attention on the impact "deregulation" had in the field. See Paule Halley, "Le droit de l'environnement et la déreglementation au Québec", in Laurent Lepage and Mario Gauthier, (eds.), Déréglementation et nouvelle gestion de l'environnement (Montreal: Institut des sciences de l'environnement, Université du Québec à Montréal, 1998), pp. 19-49;
106. Laurent Lepage, "La déréglementation du secteur de l'environnement au Québec: changement ou continuité?" in Lepage and Gauthier, Déréglementation, pp. 51-54. Other writers emphasized the effect of political pressure on the quality of the resulting environmental standards.
107. See Revil, "L'OMC et le régime commercial multilatéral"; Laurie E. Adkin, Politics of Sustainable Development: Citizens, Unions and the Corporations (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1998). This deregulation, according to Simard and Lepage, was related to "the option of giving local actors responsibility for environmental management", which was the favoured practice beginning in the 1980s in Quebec (Simard and Lepage, "Gestion publique", p. 357 (our translation)).
108. We refer, first of all, to the amendment made in Quebec in 1978 to the Environment Quality Act (Loi sur la qualité de l'environnement (LQE)), for the purpose of giving "citizens the right to take pan in the environmental assessment process on major projects" (Simard and Lepage, "Gestion publique", p. 354 (our translation))
109. and secondly, to the enactment in Canada, in 1984, of the Environmental Assessment and Review Process Guidelines Order (EARPGO), which had the objective of "studying environmental impacts - and social repercussions - of major development projects on Crown lands or sanctioned by the federal government." (Maureen G. Reed, L'évaluation environnementale et Us revendications des peuples autochtones: mise en œuvre de la convention définitive des Inuvialuit (Hull, QC: Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council, CEARC, 1990), p. 11 (our translation)).
110. In 1995, EARPGO was superseded by the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA), through which the public's right to take part in the assessment process was officially reinforced. See Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), Le droit et les politiques de l'environnement en Amétique du Nord (Cowansville, QC: Les Éditions Yvon Blais, 1999), pp. 8, 18-20.
111. It is interesting to note that the environmental regime of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (JBNQA, Ch. 23) made provisions, as early as 1975, for formal participation of the Cree and Inuit people in the environmental assessment process for mining projects in James Bay and Nunavik.
112. Ressources naturelles Canada, Rapport global sur l'examen fédéral-provincial-territorial de la réglementation environnementale fédérale touchant le secteur minier au Canada (Ottawa, 1998), p. 18.
113. Natural Resources Canada, Government of Canada Minerals and Metals Policy: Partnerships for Sustainable Development (Ottawa, 1996); Gavin Hilson, "Sustainable Development Policies in Canada's Mining Sector: An Overview of Government and Industry Efforts", Environmental Science & Policy 3 (2000), p. 205.
114. e législature, 1ére session, Index du Journal des débats (Cahier no 115) (Québec, 24 avril 1991), p. 7559. Unlike the federal government, although the government of Quebec had no official overall sustainable development policy for the mining sector, it proceeded by amending certain provisions of the Mining Act, such as the requirement for a redevelopment plan for mining sites backed by financial guarantees, before mining operations could begin.
115. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), Mackenzie Valley Resource Management Act: A Citizen's Guide (Ottawa, 2001), p. 3.
116. Hilson, "Sustainable Development Policies", p. 210.
117. Boisselle, "De la consultation des peuples autochtones."
118. Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories, p. 46.
119. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 28.
120. Ibid., p. 291.
121. Lapalme, La dimension sociale, p. 31.
122. Irene Sosa and Karyn Keenan, Impact Benefit Agreements Between Aboriginal Communities and Mining Companies: Their Use in Canada (Environmental Mining Council of British Columbia, Canadian Environmental Law Association and CooperAcción: Acción Solidaria para el Desarrollo, 2001), p. 1.
123. In 1990-2000, 18 First Nations communities in different provinces and territories were involved in the negotiations process for an IBA (W. J. Wolfe, Socio-Economic Impact Agreements in Canada 1990-2001: Aboriginal Expectations Meet Conventional Legal, Financial and Business Practices (Toronto: Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada, 2001), p. 2).
124. Jason Prno, "Assessing the Effectiveness of Impact and Benefit Agreements from the Perspective of their Aboriginal Signatories" (Masters thesis: University of Guelph, 2007);
125. Michael William Hitch, "Impact and Benefit Agreements and the Political Ecology of Mineral Development in Nunavut" (Ph. D. diss: University of Waterloo, 2006);
126. Ciaran O'Faircheallaigh, Environmental Agreements in Canada: Aboriginal Participation, EIA Follow-Up, and Environmental Management of Major Projects (Calgary: Canadian Institute of Resources Law, 2006);
127. Public Policy Forum, "Sharing in the Benefits of Resource Developments: A Study of First Nations-Industry Impact Benefits Agreements", Round Table Discussion Paper (Ottawa: Public Policy Forum, 2005);
128. Lindsay Galbraith, "Understanding the Need for Supraregulatory Agreements in Environmental Assessment: An Evaluation from the Northwest Territories, Canada", (Master's thesis: Simon Fraser University, 2005).
129. Beyond the heritage left to us by the principle of free mining, we observe that the political identity of these First Nations' populations is also determined, in part, by the historical fiduciary relationship that developed between the Canadian state and the First Nations. Still in the 1990s, it seems quite apparent that this relationship generally meant that the involvement of First Nations in drafting development priorities was subjected to arbitration beyond their control, between determination of their interests and those of Canadian society at large, a state of affairs that limited the ability of First Nations parties to play an active role as autonomous political entities.
130. See Christine O'Doherty, "Femmes autochtones et déterminants sociaux de la santé: le rôle du droit" (Master's thesis: Université du Québec à Montréal, 1999).
131. Consultation generally takes place only when a promoter files a request for a permit in order to exploit the resource, and the project is considered likely to cause significant negative impacts on the area in which it takes place and/or to be the object of specific public concerns, as was the case for the Ekati project (Virginia Valerie Gibson, "Negotiated Spaces: Work, Home and the Relationships in the Dene Diamond Economy" (Ph. D. diss: University of British Columbia, 2008), p. 127).
132. The right to obtain consent does not appear in Canadian legislation, although it is at the heart of current national and international debates concerning the integration of mining projects into the environment in which they take place, and summarized by the expression of free, prior, and informed consent (Steven Herz, Antonio La Vina, and Jonathan Sohn, Development without Conflict: The Business Case for Community Consent (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2007), pp. 7-11.
133. Gibson, "Negotiated Spaces", p. 57;
134. Shauna Qureshy, Landlords and Political Traps: How Mineral Exploration Companies Seek Access to First Nation Territory (Ottawa: The Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, 2006), p. 1 (note 3).
135. It should be noted that the territories on which mining titles have been already granted are automatically excluded (grandfathered) from the zones that may be classified as nontransferable or inalienable. According to Virginia Gibson, because it has been instituted as a system for decades, the principle of free mining would continue to favour the concept of terra nullius, which restricts the possibilities of achieving recognition of inalienable lands, such as sought by the Aboriginal groups of the Northwest Territories: "The onus is never on the federal government to prove that there are no relevant land claims in the region before mineral rights are granted. Rather, mineral rights are granted and sizeable chunks of land are then extracted from possible land withdrawals" (Gibson, "Negotiated Spaces", pp. 161-162).
136. In 1996, at the high point of the negotiations led by BHP Diamonds Inc. with the communities of the Lac de Gras region, it was estimated that only 1.5 to 2 percent of the lands had been withdrawn from mining exploration in Canada, of which 66 percent were due to land claims of Aboriginal groups that had been settled, or were being settled (Alex Ker, Shifting Ground: Aboriginal-Mining Industry Relations in Canada (Compass Consulting, 1996), Summary Report, p. 11).
137. Quoted in Bankes and Sharvit, "Free Entry Mineral Regimes", p. 9.
138. Qureshy, Landlords and Political Traps, pp. 2, 86.
139. Quoted in Gibson, "Negotiated Spaces", p. 162.
140. Prno, "Assessing the Effectiveness of Impact and Benefit Agreements", p. 89;
141. Gibson, "Negotiated Spaces", p. 124.
142. Qureshy, Landlords and Political Traps, p. 46.
143. Galbraith, "Understanding the Need for Supraregulatory Agreements", p. 87.
144. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 118.
145. Kaarina Stiff, "Cumulative Effects Assessment and Sustainability: Diamond Mining in the Slave Geological Province" (Master's thesis: University of Waterloo, 2001), p. 79.
146. Winds and Voices Environmental Services Inc., Determining Significance of Environmental Effects: An Aboriginal Perspective, Research and Development Monograph Series (Hull, QC: Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, 2000), p. 34.
147. Barton, Reforming the Mining Law of the Northwest Territories, p. 39.
148. Revil, "L'OMC et le régime commercial multilaté ral", pp. 83-105;
149. Kevin O'Reilly, "Staking Our Claim: Reform of Northern Mining Law", Northern Perspectives 25/3 (1998-1999), (accessed 16 May 2008).
150. Quebec, Commission permanente de l'économie et du travail, Secteur mines Bilan et perspective du domaine, Cahier no. 72 (Quebec, 24 April 1991), p. 3780.
151. Alain Moisan examined, on this subject, the involvement of the private sector in environmental regulation of the mining sector in Quebec. According to this author, the structure of the regulatory measures promoted by the government for environmental protection in this sector were favourable to the emergence of negotiations and partnerships between government and industry to carry out the administrative and political functions of these regulatory measures. See Alain Moisan, "La politique environnementale dans le secteur minier au Québec", (Master's thesis: Université du Québec à Montréal, 2000), p. 95.
152. Szablowski, Transnational Law and Local Struggles, p. 27.
153. Wayne M. Shinya, "Canada's New Minerals and Metals Policy: Advancing the Concept of Sustainable Development in the Minerals and Metals Industry", Resources Policy 24/2 (1998), p. 95.
154. William Hipwell, Katy Mamen, Viviane Weitzner, and Gail Whiteman, "Aboriginal Peoples and Mining in Canada: Consultation, Participation and Prospects for Change", Working Discussion Paper (Ottawa: The North-South Institute, 2002), p. 10.