Multifocal motor neuropathy: Update on clinical characteristics, pathophysiological concepts and therapeutic options

European Neurology

Volumn 63, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 193-204

  Meuth, Sven G ^a   Kleinschnitz, Christoph ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Anti GM1 antibodies; Conduction block; Ion channels; Multifocal motor neuropathy

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE (POTASSIUM SODIUM); CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; GANGLIOSIDE GM1 ANTIBODY; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; RITUXIMAB;

ACTION POTENTIAL; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; ARM; AUTOLOGOUS STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; BLOOD NERVE BARRIER; CAMPYLOBACTER ENTERITIS; CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY DEMYELINATING POLYNEUROPATHY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CRANIAL NERVE; DEMYELINATION; DEPOLARIZATION; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE DURATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG MEGADOSE; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; FASCICULATION; FATALITY; GRIP STRENGTH; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HUMAN; HYPERPOLARIZATION; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; LEG; LIMB WEAKNESS; MOTOR NERVE; MOTOR NERVE CONDUCTION; MOTOR NEUROPATHY; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE CRAMP; MUSCLE STRENGTH; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; MYELIN SHEATH; MYOKYMIA; NERVE BIOPSY; NERVE BLOCK; NERVE CONDUCTION; NERVE FIBER; NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; NERVE POTENTIAL; NEUROGRAPHY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; ONSET AGE; PARESIS; PARESTHESIA; PERIPHERAL NERVE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUADRIPLEGIA; RANVIER NODE; RECURRENT DISEASE; REMISSION; REVIEW; SENSORY NERVE; SEX RATIO; TENDON REFLEX; VIBRATION SENSE;

ACTION POTENTIALS; ANTIBODIES; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; GANGLIOSIDOSIS, GM1; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MOTOR NEURON DISEASE; NEURAL CONDUCTION;

EID: 76249112088     PISSN: 00143022     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000282734     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Roth G, Rohr J, Magistris MR, Ochsner F: Motor neuropathy with proximal multifocal persistent conduction block, fasciculations and myokymia. Evolution to tetraplegia. Eur Neurol 1986; 25: 416-423. (Pubitemid 17179395)
2. Chad DA, Hammer K, Sargent J: Slow resolution of multifocal weakness and fasciculation: a reversible motor neuron syndrome. Neurology 1986; 36: 1260-1263. (Pubitemid 16047012)
3. Parry GJ, Clarke S: Multifocal acquired demyelinating neuropathy masquerading as motor neuron disease. Muscle Nerve 1988; 11: 103-107. (Pubitemid 18039607)
4. Pestronk A, Cornblath DR, Ilyas AA, Baba H, Quarles RH, Griffin JW, Alderson K, Adams RN: A treatable multifocal motor neuropathy with antibodies to GM1 ganglioside. Ann Neurol 1988; 24: 73-78.
5. Kornberg AJ, Pestronk A: The clinical and diagnostic role of anti-GM1 antibody testing. Muscle Nerve 1994; 17: 100-104. (Pubitemid 24012110)
6. Biessels GJ, Franssen H, van den Berg LH, Gibson A, Kappelle LJ, Venables GS, Wokke JH: Multifocal motor neuropathy. J Neurol 1997; 244: 143-152. (Pubitemid 27099851)
7. Nobile-Orazio E: Multifocal motor neuropathy. J Neuroimmunol 2001; 115: 4-18. (Pubitemid 32245648)
8. Leger JM, Behin A: Multifocal motor neuropathy. Curr Opin Neurol 2005; 18: 567-573. (Pubitemid 41476145)
9. Nobile-Orazio E, Cappellari A, Priori A: Multifocal motor neuropathy: current concepts and controversies. Muscle Nerve 2005; 31: 663-680. (Pubitemid 40734675)
10. Van Asseldonk JT, Franssen H, Van den Berg-Vos RM, Wokke JH, Van den Berg LH: Multifocal motor neuropathy. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4: 309-319. (Pubitemid 40545042)
11. Charles N, Benoit P, Vial C, Bierme T, Moreau T, Bady B: Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in multifocal motor neuropathy. Lancet 1992; 340: 182.
12. Chaudhry V, Corse AM, Cornblath DR, Kuncl RW, Drachman DB, Freimer ML, Miller RG, Griffin JW: Multifocal motor neuropathy: response to human immune globulin. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 237-242. (Pubitemid 23081153)
13. Nobile-Orazio E, Meucci N, Barbieri S, Carpo M, Scarlato G: High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in multifocal motor neuropathy. Neurology 1993; 43: 537-544. (Pubitemid 23088488)
14. Umapathi T, Hughes RA, Nobile-Orazio E, Léger JM: Immunosuppressive treatment for multifocal motor neuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; 2:CD003217. (Pubitemid 34779193)
15. Umapathi T, Hughes RA, Nobile-Orazio E, Léger JM: Immunosuppressant and immunomodulatory treatments for multifocal motor neuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 3:CD003217. (Pubitemid 41373683)
16. Nobile-Orazio E: What's new in multifocal motor neuropathy in 2007-2008? J Peripher Nerv Syst 2008; 13: 261-263.
17. van Schaik IN, Bouche P, Illa I, Leger JM, Van den Bergh P, Cornblath DR, Evers EM, Hadden RD, Hughes RA, Koski CL, Nobile- Orazio E, Pollard J, Sommer C, van Doorn PA: European Federation of Neurological Societies/Peripheral Nerve Society guideline on management of multifocal motor neuropathy. Eur J Neurol 2006; 13: 802-808. (Pubitemid 44124675)
18. Olney RK, Lewis RA, Putnam TD, Campellone JV Jr: Consensus criteria for the diagnosis of multifocal motor neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 2003; 27: 117-121. (Pubitemid 36083455)
19. Saperstein DS, Amato AA, Barohn RJ: Clinical and genetic aspects of distal myopathies. Muscle Nerve 2001; 24: 1440-1450. (Pubitemid 32995579)
20. Van Doorn PA, Garssen MP: Treatment of immune neuropathies. Curr Opin Neurol 2002; 15: 623-631.
21. Kieseier BC, Kiefer R, Gold R, Hemmer B, Willison HJ, Hartung HP: Advances in understanding and treatment of immune-mediated disorders of the peripheral nervous system. Muscle Nerve 2004; 30: 131-156. (Pubitemid 38982218)
22. Taylor BV, Wright RA, Harper CM, Dyck PJ: Natural history of 46 patients with multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block. Muscle Nerve 2000; 23: 900-908. (Pubitemid 30354497)
23. Van Asseldonk JT, Van den Berg LH, Van den Berg-Vos RM, Wieneke GH, Wokke JH, Franssen H: Demyelination and axonal loss in multifocal motor neuropathy: distribution and relation to weakness. Brain 2003; 126: 186-198. (Pubitemid 36068569)
24. Maurer M, Stoll G, Toyka KV: Multifocal motor neuropathy presenting as chronic progressive proximal leg weakness. Neuromuscul Disord 2004; 14: 380-382. (Pubitemid 38622372)
25. Bouche P, Moulonguet A, Younes-Chennoufi AB, Adams D, Baumann N, Meininger V, Leger JM, Said G: Multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block: a study of 24 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 59: 38-44.
26. Kaji R, Shibasaki H, Kimura J: Multifocal demyelinating motor neuropathy: cranial nerve involvement and immunoglobulin therapy. Neurology 1992; 42: 506-509.
27. Magistris M, Roth G: Motor neuropathy with multifocal persistent conduction blocks. Muscle Nerve 1992; 15: 1056-1057.
28. Van den Berg-Vos RM, Franssen H, Wokke JH, Van Es HW, Van den Berg LH: Multifocal motor neuropathy: diagnostic criteria that predict the response to immunoglobulin treatment. Ann Neurol 2000; 48: 919-926.
29. Terenghi F, Allaria S, Nobile-Orazio E: Circulating levels of cytokines and their modulation by intravenous immunoglobulin in multifocal motor neuropathy. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2006; 11: 67-71. (Pubitemid 43344977)
30. O'Leary CP, Mann AC, Lough J, Willison HJ: Muscle hypertrophy in multifocal motor neuropathy is associated with continuous motor unit activity. Muscle Nerve 1997; 20: 479-485. (Pubitemid 27154639)
31. White JR, Sachs GM, Gilchrist JM: Multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block and Campylobacter jejuni. Neurology 1996; 46: 562-563. (Pubitemid 26081353)
32. Abbruzzese M, Reni L, Schenone A, Mancardi GL, Primavera A: Multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block after Campylobacter jejuni enteritis. Neurology 1997; 48: 544. (Pubitemid 27087643)
33. Sugie K, Murata K, Ikoma K, Suzumura A, Takayanagi T: A case of acute multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block after Campylobacter jejuni enteritis (in Japanese). Rinsho Shinkeigaku 1998; 38: 42-45. (Pubitemid 28218005)
34. Capasso M, Caporale CM, Pomilio F, Gandolfi P, Lugaresi A, Uncini A: Acute motor conduction block neuropathy. Another Guillain- Barré syndrome variant. Neurology 2003; 61: 617-622. (Pubitemid 37082597)
35. Terenghi F, Allaria S, Scarlato G, Nobile- Orazio E: Multifocal motor neuropathy and Campylobacter jejuni reactivity. Neurology 2002; 59: 282-284. (Pubitemid 34779193)
36. Kaji R, Bostock H, Kohara N, Murase N, Kimura J, Shibasaki H: Activity-dependent conduction block in multifocal motor neuropathy. Brain 2000; 123: 1602-1611. (Pubitemid 30481184)
37. Reiners K: Neurophysiologische und morphologische Aspekte der Nervenleitung. I. Grundlagen und Problematik des Leitungsblocks. Z EEG-EMG 1997: 96-102.
38. Kaji R: Physiology of conduction block in multifocal motor neuropathy and other demyelinating neuropathies. Muscle Nerve 2003; 27: 285-296. (Pubitemid 36255388)
39. Feasby TE, Brown WF, Gilbert JJ, Hahn AF: The pathological basis of conduction block in human neuropathies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48: 239-244.
40. Auer RN, Bell RB, Lee MA: Neuropathy with onion bulb formations and pure motor manifestations. Can J Neurol Sci 1989; 16: 194-197.
41. Veugelers B, Theys P, Lammens M, Van Hees J, Robberecht W: Pathological findings in a patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block. J Neurol Sci 1996; 136: 64-70. (Pubitemid 26100241)
42. Priori A, Cinnante C, Pesenti A, Carpo M, Cappellari A, Nobile-Orazio E, Scarlato G, Barbieri S: Distinctive abnormalities of motor axonal strength-duration properties in multifocal motor neuropathy and in motor neurone disease. Brain 2002; 125: 2481-2490.
43. Kaji R, Oka N, Tsuji T, Mezaki T, Nishio T, Akiguchi I, Kimura J: Pathological findings at the site of conduction block in multifocal motor neuropathy. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 152-158. (Pubitemid 23039923)
44. Bostock H, Sharief MK, Reid G, Murray NM: Axonal ion channel dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Brain 1995; 118: 217-225.
45. Burke D, Kiernan MC, Bostock H: Excitability of human axons. Clin Neurophysiol 2001; 112: 1575-1585. (Pubitemid 32763239)
46. Kiernan MC, Guglielmi JM, Kaji R, Murray NM, Bostock H: Evidence for axonal membrane hyperpolarization in multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block. Brain 2002; 125: 664-675. (Pubitemid 34194419)
47. Ritchie JM, Straub RW: The hyperpolarization which follows activity in mammalian non-medullated fibres. J Physiol 1957; 136: 80-97.
48. Raymond SA: Effects of nerve impulses on threshold of frog sciatic nerve fibres. J Physiol 1979; 290: 273-303.
49. Kiernan MC, Bostock H: Effects of membrane polarization and ischaemia on the excitability properties of human motor axons. Brain 2000; 123: 2542-2551.
50. Kleinschnitz C, Reiners K: Multifokale motorische Neuropathie: Klinische Merkmale, Pathophysiologie und Therapie. Klin Neurophysiol 2006; 37: 169-179. (Pubitemid 44638964)
51. Corbo M, Quattrini A, Lugaresi A, Santoro M, Latov N, Hays AP: Patterns of reactivity of human anti-GM1 antibodies with spinal cord and motor neurons. Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 487-493.
52. Thomas FP: Anti-Gm1 antibodies in motor system diseases and neuropathies (in German). Nervenarzt 1990; 61: 704-710.
53. Ogawa-Goto K, Funamoto N, Ohta Y, Abe T, Nagashima K: Myelin gangliosides of human peripheral nervous system: an enrichment of GM1 in the motor nerve myelin isolated from cauda equina. J Neurochem 1992; 59: 1844-1849.
54. Paolazzi G, Peccatori S, Cavatorta FP, Morini A: A case of spontaneously recovering multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction blocks (MMNCB) during anti-TNF alpha therapy for ankylosing spondylitis. Clin Rheumatol 2009; 28: 993-995.
55. Santoro M, Uncini A, Corbo M, Staugaitis SM, Thomas FP, Hays AP, Latov N: Experimental conduction block induced by serum from a patient with anti-GM1 antibodies. Ann Neurol 1992; 31: 385-390.
56. Uncini A, Santoro M, Corbo M, Lugaresi A, Latov N: Conduction abnormalities induced by sera of patients with multifocal motor neuropathy and anti-GM1 antibodies. Muscle Nerve 1993; 16: 610-615.
57. Takigawa T, Yasuda H, Kikkawa R, Shigeta Y, Saida T, Kitasato H: Antibodies against GM1 ganglioside affect K + and Na + currents in isolated rat myelinated nerve fibers. Ann Neurol 1995; 37: 436-442.
58. Harvey GK, Toyka KV, Zielasek J, Kiefer R, Simonis C, Hartung HP: Failure of anti- GM1 IgG or IgM to induce conduction block following intraneural transfer. Muscle Nerve 1995; 18: 388-394.
59. Hirota N, Kaji R, Bostock H, Shindo K, Kawasaki T, Mizutani K, Oka N, Kohara N, Saida T, Kimura J: The physiological effect of anti-GM1 antibodies on saltatory conduction and transmembrane currents in single motor axons. Brain 1997; 120: 2159-2169.
60. Benatar M: Antibodies from ALS patients inhibit dopamine release mediated by L-type calcium channels. Neurology 1999; 52: 1520-1521.
61. Quattrini A, Lorenzetti I, Sciorati C, Corbo M, Previtali SC, Feltri ML, Canal N, Wrabetz L, Nemni R, Clementi E: Human IgM anti- GM1 autoantibodies modulate intracellular calcium homeostasis in neuroblastoma cells. J Neuroimmunol 2001; 114: 213-219.
62. Azulay JP, Rihet P, Pouget J, Cador F, Blin O, Boucraut J, Serratrice G: Long term follow up of multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block under treatment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 62: 391-394.
63. Leger JM, Chassande B, Musset L, Meininger V, Bouche P, Baumann N: Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in multifocal motor neuropathy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Brain 2001; 124: 145-153.
64. Roberts M, Willison HJ, Vincent A, Newsom- Davis J: Multifocal motor neuropathy human sera block distal motor nerve conduction in mice. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 111-118.
65. Pestronk A, Adams RN, Kuncl RW, Drachman DB, Clawson LL, Cornblath DR: Differential effects of prednisone and cyclophosphamide on autoantibodies in human neuromuscular disorders. Neurology 1989; 39: 628-633.
66. Jaspert A, Claus D, Grehl H, Neundorfer B: Multifocal motor neuropathy: clinical and electrophysiological findings. J Neurol 1996; 243: 684-692.
67. Katz JS, Wolfe GI, Bryan WW, Jackson CE, Amato AA, Barohn RJ: Electrophysiologic findings in multifocal motor neuropathy. Neurology 1997; 48: 700-707.
68. Kimura J: Principles and pitfalls of nerve conduction studies. Ann Neurol 1984; 16: 415-429.
69. Taylor PK: CMAP dispersion, amplitude decay, and area decay in a normal population. Muscle Nerve 1993; 16: 1181-1187.
70. Rhee EK, England JD, Sumner AJ: A computer simulation of conduction block: effects produced by actual block versus interphase cancellation. Ann Neurol 1990; 28: 146-156.
71. Oh SJ, Kim DE, Kuruoglu HR: What is the best diagnostic index of conduction block and temporal dispersion? Muscle Nerve 1994; 17: 489-493.
72. Sumner AJ: Separating motor neuron diseases from pure motor neuropathies. Multifocal motor neuropathy with persistent conduction block. Adv Neurol 1991; 56: 399-403.
73. Lange DJ, Trojaborg W, McDonald TD, Blake DM: Persistent and transient 'conduction block' in motor neuron diseases. Muscle Nerve 1993; 16: 896-903.
74. Schulte-Mattler WJ, Muller T, Georgiadis D, Kornhuber ME, Zierz S: Length dependence of variables associated with temporal dispersion in human motor nerves. Muscle Nerve 2001; 24: 527-533.
75. Cappellari A, Nobile-Orazio E, Meucci N, Levi Minzi G, Scarlato G, Barbieri S: Criteria for early detection of conduction block in multifocal motor neuropathy (MMN): a study based on control populations and follow- up of MMN patients. J Neurol 1997; 244: 625-630.
76. Katz JS, Barohn RJ, Kojan S, Wolfe GI, Nations SP, Saperstein DS, Amato AA: Axonal multifocal motor neuropathy without conduction block or other features of demyelination. Neurology 2002; 58: 615-620.
77. Lewis RA: Multifocal motor neuropathy and Lewis Sumner syndrome: two distinct entities. Muscle Nerve 1999; 22: 1738-1739.
78. Cornblath DR, Sumner AJ: Conduction block in neuropathies with necrotizing vasculitis. Muscle Nerve 1991; 14: 185-186.
79. Corse AM, Chaudhry V, Crawford TO, Cornblath DR, Kuncl RW, Griffin JW: Sensory nerve pathology in multifocal motor neuropathy. Ann Neurol 1996; 39: 319-325.
80. Krarup C, Stewart JD, Sumner AJ, Pestronk A, Lipton SA: A syndrome of asymmetric limb weakness with motor conduction block. Neurology 1990; 40: 118-127.
81. Jamieson PW, Giuliani MJ, Martinez AJ: Necrotizing angiopathy presenting with multifocal conduction blocks. Neurology 1991; 41: 442-444.
82. Homberg V, Reiners K, Toyka KV: Reversible conduction block in human ischemic neuropathy after ergotamine abuse. Muscle Nerve 1992; 15: 467-470.
83. Brown WF, Feasby TE: Conduction block and denervation in Guillain-Barré polyneuropathy. Brain 1984; 107: 219-239.
84. Research criteria for diagnosis of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP). Report from an Ad Hoc Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology AIDS Task Force. Neurology 1991; 41: 617-618.
85. Carpo M, Cappellari A, Mora G, Pedotti R, Barbieri S, Scarlato G, Nobile-Orazio E: Deterioration of multifocal motor neuropathy after plasma exchange. Neurology 1998; 50: 1480-1482.
86. Arunachalam R, Osei-Lah A, Mills KR: Transcutaneous cervical root stimulation in the diagnosis of multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003; 74: 1329-1331.
87. Olney RK: Guidelines in electrodiagnostic medicine. Consensus criteria for the diagnosis of partial conduction block. Muscle Nerve 1999; 8(suppl):S225-S229.
88. Nodera H, Bostock H, Izumi Y, Nakamura K, Urushihara R, Sakamoto T, Murase N, Shimazu H, Kusunoki S, Kaji R: Activity-dependent conduction block in multifocal motor neuropathy: magnetic fatigue test. Neurology 2006; 67: 280-287.
89. Deroide N, Uzenot D, Verschueren A, Azulay JP, Pouget J, Attarian S: Triple-stimulation technique in multifocal neuropathy with conduction block. Muscle Nerve 2007; 35: 632-636.
90. Chaudhry V, Swash M: Multifocal motor neuropathy: is conduction block essential? Neurology 2006; 67: 558-559.
91. Pakiam AS, Parry GJ: Multifocal motor neuropathy without overt conduction block. Muscle Nerve 1998; 21: 243-245.
92. Ellis CM, Leary S, Payan J, Shaw C, Hu M, O'Brien M, Leigh PN: Use of human intravenous immunoglobulin in lower motor neuron syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999; 67: 15-19.
93. Delmont E, Azulay JP, Giorgi R, Attarian S, Verschueren A, Uzenot D, Pouget J: Multifocal motor neuropathy with and without conduction block: a single entity? Neurology 2006; 67: 592-596.
94. Terenghi F, Cappellari A, Bersano A, Carpo M, Barbieri S, Nobile-Orazio E: How long is IVIg effective in multifocal motor neuropathy? Neurology 2004; 62: 666-668.
95. Chaudhry V, Corse AM, Cornblath DR, Kuncl RW, Freimer ML, Griffin JW: Multifocal motor neuropathy: electrodiagnostic features. Muscle Nerve 1994; 17: 198-205.
96. Bech E, Jakobsen J, Orntoft TF: ELISA-type titertray assay of IgM anti-GM1 autoantibodies. Clin Chem 1994; 40: 1331-1334.
97. Pestronk A, Choksi R: Multifocal motor neuropathy. Serum IgM anti-GM1 ganglioside antibodies in most patients detected using covalent linkage of GM1 to ELISA plates. Neurology 1997; 49: 1289-1292.
98. Holloway RG, Feasby TE: To test or not to test? That is the question. Neurology 1999; 53: 1905-1907.
99. McCombe PA, Wilson R, Prentice RL: Results of testing for anti-GM1 antibodies. J Clin Neurosci 2000; 7: 209-212.
100. Cavanna B, Carpo M, Pedotti R, Scarpini E, Meucci N, Allaria S, Scarlato G, Nobile- Orazio E: Anti-GM2 IgM antibodies: clinical correlates and reactivity with a human neuroblastoma cell line. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 94: 157-164.
101. Nobile-Orazio E, Gallia F, Terenghi F, Allaria S, Giannotta C, Carpo M: How useful are anti-neural IgM antibodies in the diagnosis of chronic immune-mediated neuropathies? J Neurol Sci 2008; 266: 156-163.
102. Latov N, Hays AP, Donofrio PD, Liao J, Ito H, McGinnis S, Konstadoulakis M, Freddo L, Shy ME, et al: Monoclonal IgM with unique specificity to gangliosides GM1 and GD1b and to lacto-N-tetraose associated with human motor neuron disease. Neurology 1988; 38: 763-768.
103. Sadiq SA, Thomas FP, Kilidireas K, Protopsaltis S, Hays AP, Lee KW, Romas SN, Kumar N, van den Berg L, Santoro M, et al: The spectrum of neurologic disease associated with anti-GM1 antibodies. Neurology 1990; 40: 1067-1072.
104. Lamb NL, Patten BM: Clinical correlations of anti-GM1 antibodies in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and neuropathies. Muscle Nerve 1991; 14: 1021-1027.
105. Hughes RA, Hadden RD, Gregson NA, Smith KJ: Pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 100: 74-97.
106. van Schaik IN, Bossuyt PM, Brand A, Vermeulen M: Diagnostic value of GM1 antibodies in motor neuron disorders and neuropathies: a meta-analysis. Neurology 1995; 45: 1570-1577.
107. Alaedini A, Sander HW, Hays AP, Latov N: Antiganglioside antibodies in multifocal acquired sensory and motor neuropathy. Arch Neurol 2003; 60: 42-46.
108. Taylor BV, Gross L, Windebank AJ: The sensitivity and specificity of anti-GM1 antibody testing. Neurology 1996; 47: 951-955.
109. Freddo L, Yu RK, Latov N, Donofrio PD, Hays AP, Greenberg HS, Albers JW, Allessi AG, Keren D: Gangliosides GM1 and GD1b are antigens for IgM M-protein in a patient with motor neuron disease. Neurology 1986; 36: 454-458.
110. Donaghy M, Mills KR, Boniface SJ, Simmons J, Wright I, Gregson N, Jacobs J: Pure motor demyelinating neuropathy: deterioration after steroid treatment and improvement with intravenous immunoglobulin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 778-783.
111. Taylor BV, Dyck PJ, Engelstad J, Gruener G, Grant I, Dyck PJ: Multifocal motor neuropathy: pathologic alterations at the site of conduction block. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2004; 63: 129-137.
112. Van Es HW, Van den Berg LH, Franssen H, Witkamp TD, Ramos LM, Notermans NC, Feldberg MA, Wokke JH: Magnetic resonance imaging of the brachial plexus in patients with multifocal motor neuropathy. Neurology 1997; 48: 1218-1224.
113. Parry GJ: AAEM case report #30: multifocal motor neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 1996; 19: 269-276.
114. Duggins AJ, McLeod JG, Pollard JD, Davies L, Yang F, Thompson EO, Soper JR: Spinal root and plexus hypertrophy in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Brain 1999; 122: 1383-1390.
115. Joint Task Force of the EFNS and the PNS: European Federation of Neurological Societies/ Peripheral Nerve Society Guideline on management of paraproteinemic demyelinating neuropathies. Report of a joint task force of the European Federation of Neurological Societies and the Peripheral Nerve Society. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2006; 11: 9-19.
116. Traynor BJ, Codd MB, Corr B, Forde C, Frost E, Hardiman O: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mimic syndromes: a populationbased study. Arch Neurol 2000; 57: 109-113.
117. van den Berg-Vos RM, Visser J, Franssen H, de Visser M, de Jong JM, Kalmijn S, Wokke JH, van den Berg LH: Sporadic lower motor neuron disease with adult onset: classification of subtypes. Brain 2003; 126: 1036-1047.
118. Verschueren A, Azulay JP, Attarian S, Boucraut J, Pellissier JF, Pouget J: Lewis-Sumner syndrome and multifocal motor neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 2005; 31: 88-94.
119. Hughes RA: The spectrum of acquired demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy. Acta Neurol Belg 1994; 94: 128-132.
120. Oh SJ, Claussen GC, Kim DS: Motor and sensory demyelinating mononeuropathy multiplex (multifocal motor and sensory demyelinating neuropathy): a separate entity or a variant of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy? J Peripher Nerv Syst 1997; 2: 362-369.
121. Saperstein DS, Amato AA, Wolfe GI, Katz JS, Nations SP, Jackson CE, Bryan WW, Burns DK, Barohn RJ: Multifocal acquired demyelinating sensory and motor neuropathy: the Lewis-Sumner syndrome. Muscle Nerve 1999; 22: 560-566.
122. Viala K, Renie L, Maisonobe T, Behin A, Neil J, Leger JM, Bouche P: Follow-up study and response to treatment in 23 patients with Lewis-Sumner syndrome. Brain 2004; 127: 2010-2017.
123. Lambrecq V, Krim E, Rouanet-Larriviere M, Lagueny A: Sensory loss in multifocal motor neuropathy: a clinical and electrophysiological study. Muscle Nerve 2009; 39: 131-136.
124. Beydoun SR: Multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block misdiagnosed as multiple entrapment neuropathies. Muscle Nerve 1998; 21: 813-815.
125. Van den Berg LH, Lokhorst H, Wokke JH: Pulsed high-dose dexamethasone is not effective in patients with multifocal motor neuropathy. Neurology 1997; 48: 1135.
126. Lehmann HC, Hoffmann FR, Fusshoeller A, Meyer zu Horste G, Hetzel R, Hartung HP, Schroeter M, Kieseier BC: The clinical value of therapeutic plasma exchange in multifocal motor neuropathy. J Neurol Sci 2008; 271: 34-39.
127. Azulay JP, Blin O, Pouget J, Boucraut J, Bille-Turc F, Carles G, Serratrice G: Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in patients with motor neuron syndromes associated with anti-GM1 antibodies: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 1994; 44: 429-432.
128. Federico P, Zochodne DW, Hahn AF, Brown WF, Feasby TE: Multifocal motor neuropathy improved by IVIg: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 2000; 55: 1256-1262.
129. Donofrio PD, Berger A, Brannagan TH, 3rd, Bromberg MB, Howard JF, Latov N, Quick A, Tandan R: Consensus statement: the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of neuromuscular conditions report of the AANEM ad hoc committee. Muscle Nerve 2009; 40: 890-900.
130. Slee M, Selvan A, Donaghy M: Multifocal motor neuropathy: the diagnostic spectrum and response to treatment. Neurology 2007; 69: 1680-1687.
131. Leger JM, Viala K, Cancalon F, Maisonobe T, Gruwez B, Waegemans T, Bouche P: Intravenous immunoglobulin as short- and long-term therapy of multifocal motor neuropathy: a retrospective study of response to IVIg and of its predictive criteria in 40 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008; 79: 93-96.
132. Eftimov F, Vermeulen M, de Haan RJ, van den Berg LH, van Schaik IN: Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy for multifocal motor neuropathy. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2009; 14: 93-100.
133. Dimberg EL: Treatment of multifocal motor neuropathy with immunoglobulin: does route of administration matter? Eur J Neurol 2009; 16: 553-554.
134. Harbo T, Andersen H, Hess A, Hansen K, Sindrup SH, Jakobsen J: Subcutaneous versus intravenous immunoglobulin in multifocal motor neuropathy: a randomized, single- blinded cross-over trial. Eur J Neurol 2009; 16: 631-638.
135. Stangel M, Hartung HP, Marx P, Gold R: Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of neurological autoimmune diseases. J Neurol Sci 1998; 153: 203-214.
136. Comi G, Amadio S, Galardi G, Fazio R, Nemni R: Clinical and neurophysiological assessment of immunoglobulin therapy in five patients with multifocal motor neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57(suppl):35-37.
137. Cappellari A, Nobile-Orazio E, Meucci N, Scarlato G, Barbieri S: Multifocal motor neuropathy: a source of error in the serial evaluation of conduction block. Muscle Nerve 1996; 19: 666-669.
138. Meucci N, Cappellari A, Barbieri S, Scarlato G, Nobile-Orazio E: Long term effect of intravenous immunoglobulins and oral cyclophosphamide in multifocal motor neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 63: 765-769.
139. Van den Berg LH, Franssen H, Wokke JH: The long-term effect of intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in multifocal motor neuropathy. Brain 1998; 121: 421-428.
140. Van den Berg-Vos RM, Franssen H, Wokke JH, Van den Berg LH: Multifocal motor neuropathy: long-term clinical and electrophysiological assessment of intravenous immunoglobulin maintenance treatment. Brain 2002; 125: 1875-1886.
141. Baumann A, Hess CW, Sturzenegger M: IVIg dose increase in multifocal motor neuropathy: a prospective six month follow- up. J Neurol 2009; 256: 608-614.
142. Vucic S, Black KR, Chong PS, Cros D: Multifocal motor neuropathy: decrease in conduction blocks and reinnervation with long-term IVIg. Neurology 2004; 63: 1264-1269.
143. Pringle CE, Belden J, Veitch JE, Brown WF: Multifocal motor neuropathy presenting as ophthalmoplegia. Muscle Nerve 1997; 20: 347-351.
144. Brannagan TH 3rd, Alaedini A, Gladstone DE: High-dose cyclophosphamide without stem cell rescue for refractory multifocal motor neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 2006; 34: 246-250.
145. Axelson HW, Oberg G, Askmark H: No benefit of treatment with cyclophosphamide and autologous blood stem cell transplantation in multifocal motor neuropathy. Acta Neurol Scand 2008; 117: 432-434. (Pubitemid 351643672)
146. Martina IS, van Doorn PA, Schmitz PI, Meulstee J, van der Meche FG: Chronic motor neuropathies: response to interferonbeta1a after failure of conventional therapies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999; 66: 197-201.
147. Nemni R, Santuccio G, Calabrese E, Galardi G, Canal N: Efficacy of cyclosporine treatment in multifocal motor neuropathy. J Neurol 2003; 250: 1118-1120.
148. Piepers S, Van den Berg-Vos R, Van der Pol WL, Franssen H, Wokke J, Van den Berg L: Mycophenolate mofetil as adjunctive therapy for MMN patients: a randomized, controlled trial. Brain 2007; 130: 2004-2010.
149. Umapathi T, Hughes RA, Nobile-Orazio E, Léger JM: Immunosuppressant and immunomodulatory treatments for multifocal motor neuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 1:CD003217.
150. Rojas-Garcia R, Gallardo E, de Andres I, de Luna N, Juarez C, Sanchez P, Illa I: Chronic neuropathy with IgM anti-ganglioside antibodies: lack of long term response to rituximab. Neurology 2003; 61: 1814-1816.
151. Pestronk A, Florence J, Miller T, Choksi R, Al-Lozi MT, Levine TD: Treatment of IgM antibody associated polyneuropathies using rituximab. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003; 74: 485-489.
152. Stieglbauer K, Topakian R, Hinterberger G, Aichner FT: Beneficial effect of rituximab monotherapy in multifocal motor neuropathy. Neuromuscul Disord 2009; 19: 473-475.