Migrant clinics and hookworm science: Peripheral origins of international health, 1840-1920

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 83, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 676-709

  Steven, Palmer ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Disease ecology; Hookworm; Rockefeller foundation; Tropical medicine

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; EPIDEMIC; HEALTH; HISTORY; HOOKWORM INFECTION; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MIGRATION; NON PROFIT ORGANIZATION;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; FOUNDATIONS; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOOKWORM INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INTERNATIONALITY; TRANSIENTS AND MIGRANTS; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 75949103459     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. The Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease, Hookworm Infection in Foreign Countries (Washington, D.C.: Offices of the Commission, 1911), p. 9.
2. Charles Briggs with Clara Briggs-Mantini, Stories in the Time of Cholera: Racial Profiling During a Medical Nightmare (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), p. 278. The image reiterates the nineteenth-century colonial discourse on Asiatic cholera, a disease that by 1911 could be imagined as having been borne along in a like fecal current issuing from India and spreading throughout the West.
3. Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006), pp. 104-29.
4. Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report, 1913-1914 (New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1914), pp. 46-48.
5. Lise Wilkinson, "Burgeoning Visions of Global Public Health: The Rockefeller Foundation, The London School of Tropical Medicine, and the 'Hookworm Connection, '" Stud. Hist. Biol. & Biomed. Sci., 2000, 31 (3): 397-407.
6. Most influential on my thinking have been James D. Goodyear, "The Sugar Connection: A New Perspective on the History of Yellow Fever, " Bull. Hist. Med., 1978, 52 (1): 5-21.
7. Steve Marquardt, "'Green Havoc': Panama Disease, Environmental Change and Labor Process in the Central American Banana Industry, " Am. Hist. Rev., 2001, 106 (1): 412-43.
8. Marcos Cueto, "Epidemia y Sociedad en el Valle de la Convención, 1932, " Allpanchis, 1991, 38 : 153-88.
9. Randall Packard, White Plague, Black Labor: Tuberculosis and the Political Economy of Health and Disease in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
10. Reinaldo Funes Monzote, From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492, trans. Alex Martin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008).
11. Stuart McCook, "Global Rust Belt: 'Hemileia Vastatrix' and the Ecological Integration of World Coffee Production, " J. Global Hist., 2006, 1 (2): 177-95.
12. On the U.S. military's framing of hookworm disease in Puerto Rico, Benigno Trigo, "Anemia and Vampires: Figures to Govern the Colony, Puerto Rico, 1880-1904, " Comp. Stud. Soc. & Hist., 1999, 41 : 104-23.
13. Nicole Trujillo-Pagán, "The Politics of Professionalism in Puerto Rico During the US Occupation, " in Health and Medicine in the circum-Caribbean, 1800-1968, ed. Juanita De Barros, Steven Palmer, and David Wright (New York: Routledge, 2009), pp. 142-63.
14. José Rigau-Pérez, "Bailey Ashford. Más allá de sus memorias, " Puerto Rican Health Sci. J., 2000, 19 (1): 51-55.
15. an overview of health at the time of the occupation can be found in Annette B., Ramírez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), pp. 3-14.
16. On the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission in the southern United States, John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), is magnificent.
17. James H. Cassedy, "The 'Germ of Laziness' in the South, 1900-1915: Charles Wardell Stiles and the Progressive Paradox, " Bull. Hist. Med., 1971, 45 (2): 159-69.
18. Mary Boccaccio, "Ground Itch and Dew Poison: The Rockefeller Sanitary Commission, 1909-14, " J. Hist. Med. All. Sci., 1972, 27 (1): 30-53.
19. Anderson, Colonial Pathologies (n. 3).
20. Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation in Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
21. John Farley, Bilharzia: A History of Imperial Tropical Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 73-80.
22. Anne-Emanuelle Birn, Marriage of Convenience: Rockefeller International Health in Revolutionary Mexico (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2006).
23. John Farley, To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913-1951) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
24. Ettling, Germ of Laziness (n. 6).
25. Farley, To Cast Out Disease (n. 7), p. 28.
26. Birn, Marriage of Convenience (n. 7), pp. 18-20.
27. Esteban Rodríguez Ocaña and Alfredo Menéndez Navarro, "Higiene contra la anemia de los mineros. La lucha contra la anquilostomiasis en España (1897-1936), " Asclepio, 2006, 58 (1): 220-21.
28. Anderson, Colonial Pathologies (n. 3).
29. Michael Worboys, "The Colonial World as Mission and Mandate: Leprosy and Empire, 1900-1940, " Osiris, 2000, 15 : 207-20.
30. Roy Macleod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (New York: Routledge, 1988).
31. David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988).
32. Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997).
33. Alison Bashford, Imperial Hygiene: A Critical History of Colonialism, Nationalism, and Public Health (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
34. Pioneering in this regard were Luiz Antonio de Castro Santos, "Power, Ideology and Public Health in Brazil, 1889-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1987).
35. Castro Santos, "O pensamento sanitarista na Primeira República: uma ideologia de construção na nacionalidade, " Dados, 1985, 28 (2): 193-210.
36. Nancy Leys Stepan, Beginnings of Brazilian Science: Oswaldo Cruz, Medical Research and Policy, 1890-1920 (New York: Science History Publications, 1976).
37. Important exponents of this new approach are Julyan Peard, Race, Place, and Medicine: The Idea of the Tropics in Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Medicine (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000).
38. Marcos Cueto, Excelencia científica en la periferia: Actividades científicas e Investigación biomédica en el Perú, 1890-1950 (Lima: Tarea, 1989).
39. Cueto, "Tropical Medicine and Bacteriology in Boston and Peru: Studies of Carrion's Disease in the Early Twentieth Century, " Med. Hist., 1996, 64 : 344-64.
40. Gilberto Hochman, A era do saneamento. As bases da política da Saúde Pública no Brasil (Sao Paolo: Editora HUCITEC, 1998).
41. Jaime Larry Benchimol, Dos micróbios aos mosquitos: Febre amarela e a revolução pasteuriana no Brasil (Rio de Janiero: Editora Fiocruz, 1999).
42. Simone Kropf, Doença do Chagas, doença do Brasil: ciencia, saúde e naçao (1909-1962) (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fiocruz, 2009).
43. Flavio Edler, "A Escola Tropicalista Baiana: um mito de origem da medicina Tropical no Brasil, " História, Ciencias, Saúde-Manguinhos, 2002, 9 (2): 357-85.
44. Adrián López Denis, "Disease and Society in Colonial Cuba" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 2007).
45. López Denis, "Melancholia, Slavery, and Racial Pathology in Eighteenth-Century Cuba, " Sci. Context, 2005, 18 (2): 179-99.
46. Birn, Marriage of Convenience (n. 7), pp. 61-115.
47. Other territory-specific studies (in alphabetical order of territory), are Warwick Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia (New York: Basic Books, 2003), pp. 154-58.
48. Christian Brannstrom, "Polluted Soil, Polluted Souls: The Rockefeller Hookworm Eradication Campaign in São Paulo, Brazil, 1917-1926, " Hist. Geog., 1997, 25 : 25-45.
49. Rita Pemberton, "A Different Intervention: The International Health Commission/Board, Health, Sanitation in the British Caribbean, 1914 -1930, " Caribbean Quart., 2003, 49 (4): 87-103.
50. Steven Palmer, "Saúde imperial e educaçao popular: a Fundaçao Rockefeller na Costa Rica em uma perspectiva centro-americana, 1914 -1921, " in Cuidar, controlar, curar: ensaios históricos sobre Ironisaúde e doença na América Latina e Caribe, ed. Gilberto Hochmann and Diego Armus (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fiocruz, 2004), pp. 217-47.
51. Palmer, "Central American Encounters with Rockefeller Public Health, 1914 -1921, " in Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of US-Latin American Relations, ed. Gilbert M. Joseph, Catherine C. Legrand, and Ricardo D. Salvatore (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 311-32.
52. Emilio Quevedo et al., Café y gusanos, mosquitos y petroleo. El tránsito desde la higiene hacía la medicina tropical y la salud pública en Colombia, 1873-1953 (Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2004), pp. 202-24.
53. Christopher Abel, "External Philanthropy and Domestic Change in Colombian Health Care: The Role of the Rockefeller Foundation, ca. 1920-1950, " Hispanic Am. Hist. Rev., 1995, 75 (3): 339-76.
54. Steven Palmer, From Popular Medicine to Medical Populism: Doctors, Healers, and Public Power in Costa Rica, 1800-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 155-81.
55. James C. Riley, Poverty and Life Expectancy: The Jamaica Paradox (London: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
56. Steven Palmer and Ligia María Peña, "A Rockefeller Foundation Health Primer for U.S.-occupied Nicaragua, 1914 -1928, " Can. Bull. Med. Hist., 2008, 25 (1): 43-69.
57. Warwick Anderson, "Going Through the Motions: American Public Health and Colonial 'Mimicry, '" Am. Lit. Hist., 2002: 686-719.
58. Anderson, Colonial Pathologies (n. 3), pp. 180-205.
59. Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease, and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (New York: University Press of America, 1995).
60. Rosemarijn Hoefte, "The Difficulty of Unhooking the Hookworm: The Rockefeller Foundation, Grace Schneiders-Howard, and Public Health Care in Suriname in the Early Twentieth Century, " in De Barros, Palmer, and Wright, Health and Medicine (n. 6), pp. 211-25.
61. An important exception is Ilana Löwy's groundbreaking "'Intervenir et représenter': Campagnes sanitaires et élaboration des cartographies de l'ankylostomiase, " Hist. Phil. Life Sci., 2003, 25 : 337-62.
62. An overview of the debates can be found in R. W. Ashford and W. Crewe, The Parasites of Homo Sapiens: An Annotated Checklist of the Protozoa, Helminths and Arthropods For Which We Are Home (London: Taylor and Francis, 2003), pp. 69-70.
63. J. M. Hawdon and S. A. Johnston, "Hookworms in the Americas: An Alternative to Trans-Pacific Contact, " Parasitology Today, 1996, 12 (2): 72-74.
64. David I. Pritchard et al., "The Immunobiology of Hookworm Infection, " in The Geohelminths: Ascaris, Trichuris and Hookworm, ed. Celia V. Holland and Malcolm W. Kennedy (Boston: Kluwer, 2002), pp. 143-65.
65. Z. S. Pawlowski, G. A. Schad, and G. J. Stott, Hookworm Infection and Anaemia: Approaches to Prevention and Control (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1991), pp. 3-5.
66. The extraordinary life cycle is reproduced in a series of still-arresting film sequences in Unhooking the Hookworm, a Rockefeller Foundation hygiene film from the 1910s, that can be viewed on the Rockefeller Archive Center Web site: http://www.rockarch.org/feature/hookworm.php (last accessed 14 July 2009).
67. "Hookworm Disease, " http://www.who.int/vaccine-research/ diseases/soa-parasitic/en/index2.html (last accessed 14 July 2009).
68. Claude Combes, The Art of Being a Parasite (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), pp. 191-92, 194.
69. Angelo Dubini, "New Worm of the Human Intestine (Agchylostoma duodenale) Constituting a Sixth Genus of Nematodes Found in Man [1843], " in Tropical Medicine and Parasitology: Classic Investigations, 2 vols., ed. B. H. Kean, Kenneth E. Mott, and Adair J. Russell (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978), 2: 287-91.
70. quotation on p. 289.
71. The original publication is Angelo Dubini, "Nuovo verme intestinal umano (Agychylostoma duodenale) costituente un sesto genere dei Nematoidei proprii dell 'uomo, " Annali Universali di Medicina, April 1843, vol. CVI, fasc. 316: 5-13.
72. Wilhelm Griesinger, "Clinical and Anatomical Observations on the Diseases of Egypt, " in Kean, Mott, and Russell, Tropical Medicine and Parasitology (n. 17), 2: 291-94.
73. Originally published as Wilhelm Griesinger, "Klinische und anatomische beobachtungen uber die kranheiten von Egypten, " Archiv fur Physiologie Heilkunde, 1854, 13 : 528-75.
74. On the tenure of Griesinger and Bilharz in Egypt, see Farley, Bilharzia (n. 7), p. 48.
75. Otto Wucherer, "Sobre a molestia vulgarmente denominada oppilaçao ou cancaço, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1866, 1 (3): 27-29.
76. Otto Wucherer, "Sobre a molestia vulgarmente denominada oppilaçao ou cancaço, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1866, 1 (5): 52-54.
77. An English translation can be found in Wucherer, "On a Disease Commonly Called 'Oppilaçao' or 'Cancaço, '" in Kean, Mott, and Russell, Tropical Medicine and Parasitology (n. 17), 2: 294 -97.
78. The significance of Wucherer's work and its context is explored in Peard, Race, Place, and Medicine (n. 10), pp. 64 -72.
79. his discovery is noted in passing in Ettling, Germ of Laziness (n. 6), 25-26.
80. The process is exquisitely, if painfully, rendered in Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1919), pp. 110-11, 171.
81. Jan Lucassen, Migrant Labour in Europe, 1600-1900: The Drift to the North Sea (London: Croom Helm, 1987), p. 200.
82. E. R. J. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 1820-1914: A Study in Trade and Development (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), pp. 63-81.
83. Timothy Mitchell, Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-politics, Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 68.
84. Gabriel Bayer, Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), p. 7.
85. Griesinger, "Clinical and Anatomical Observations" (n. 18), p. 292.
86. Wucherer, "Sobre a molestia" (n. 19), p. 29.
87. B. J. Barickman, "Persistence and Decline: Slave Labour and Sugar Production in the Bahian Recôncavo, 1850-1888, " J. Lat. Amer. Stud., 1996, 28 (3): 581-633, esp. pp. 599, 616.
88. Giovanni Battista Grassi, Corrado Parona, and Ernesto Parona, "Intorno all'anchilostoma duodenale (Dubini), " Gazetta Medica Italiana-Lombardia, 1878, 20 : 193-96.
89. The English translation, "On Ancylostoma duodenale (Dubini), " in Kean, Mott, and Russell, Tropical Medicine and Parasitology (n. 17), 2: 297-300, uses the occupationally imprecise terms "farmer" for contadino/a, and "laborer" for bracciante.
90. Adolpho Lutz, A Opilaçao ou Hypoemia Intertropical e sua origem ou Ankylostoma duodenal e ankylostomiase [1888], in Adolpho Lutz, Obra completa, 4 vols., ed. Jaime L. Benchimol and Magali Romero Sá (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fiocruz, 2007), vol. 2, bk. 2, pp. 169-232.
91. Lutz, Helmintología-Helminthology, A Opilaçao ou Hypoemia Intertropical e sua origem ou Ankylostoma duodenal e ankylostomiase [1888], in ibid., vol. 3, bk. 2: p. 184.
92. The two principal publications were Edoardo Perroncito, "Comunicazione preventiva sopra studii elmintologici relativi alla malattia del Gottardo, " Osservatore: gazzetta delle cliniche di Torino, 1880, vi: 321-26, 357-61.
93. Perroncito, "Osservazioni elmintologiche relativi alla malattia svillupatasi endemica fra gli operai del Gottardo, " Atti della reale Accademia dei Lincei, Transunti, Roma, 1879-80, ser. 3, Trans, iv: 179-84.
94. They are collected in Edoardo Perroncito, La malattia dei minatori dal S. Gottardo al Sempione (Turin: Carlo Pasta, Libraio Editore, 1909), pp. 1-13, 15-22.
95. which also contains a compendium of clinical histories that provide brief but moving occupational biographies of the agricultural laborers who suffered in the St. Gothard dig, pp. 217-40.
96. A contemporary English translation of the second of these classic articles was published as Edoardo Perroncito, "Helminthological Observations upon the Endemic Disease Developed Among the Labourers in the Tunnel of Mount St. Gothard, " J. Quekett Microsc. Club, 1879-81, 6 : 141-50.
97. Edoardo Perroncito, "Osservazioni elmintologiche relative alla malattia sviluppatasi endemica negli operai del Gottardo (Memoria presentata all R. Accademia dei Lincei nella seduta del 2 maggio 1880-Estratto dal Vol. 7, Serie 3a)" in La malattia dei minatori (n. 29), pp. 23-91.
98. A. Looss, The Anatomy and Life History of Agchylostoma Duodenale Dub., 2 vols. (Part 1. The Anatomy of the Adult Worm; Part 2. The Development in the Free State.), Records of the Egyptian Government School of Medicine, vols. 3-4 (Cairo: National Printing Department, 1905-11), 2: 545.
99. F. M. Sandwith, The Medical Diseases of Egypt, Part I (London: Henry Kimpton, 1905), p. 243.
100. the medical context is reconstructed nicely in Looss, Anatomy and Life History (n. 30), 1: 13-284.
101. See Jaime Larry Benchimol, "Febre amarela e a instituiçao da microbiologia no Brasil, " in Hochmann and Armus, Cuidar, controlar, curar (n. 11), pp. 57-97, esp. pp. 62-64.
102. Rockefeller Foundation-International Health Board, "Introduction, " Bibliography of Hookworm Disease (New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1922), pp. xxii-xv.
103. Ettling, Germ of Laziness (n. 6), p. 25.
104. Of particular importance, Julio Rodrigues de Moura, "Da Hypoemia intertropical considerada como molestia verminosa, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1870, 4 (86): 157-59.
105. Julio Rodrigues de Moura, "Da Hypoemia intertropical considerada como molestia verminosa, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1870, 4 (87): 171-73.
106. Julio Rodrigues de Moura, "Da Hypoemia intertropical considerada como molestia verminosa, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1870, 4 (88): 181-83.
107. Julio Rodrigues de Moura, "Da Hypoemia intertropical considerada como molestia verminosa, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1871, 5 (97): 6-9.
108. Victorino Pereira, "Ancholostomo duodenal. Chlorose do Egypto-Hypoemia intertropical, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1877, 9 (1): 27.
109. Victorino Pereira, "Ancholostomo duodenal. Chlorose do Egypto-Hypoemia intertropical, " Gazeta Médica da Bahia, 1877, 9 (2): 70.
110. Pereira, "Ancholostomo duodenal" (n. 33), p. 70. Pereira was making the connection between hookworm disease and the wet earth and bare feet because he assumed a quasimiasmatic transmission of ankylostomiasis and some of its attendant debilities; it was not yet known that the worms entered the body through the bare skin of the feet.
111. On the expansion of coffee in Bahia, see Barickman, "Persistence and Decline" (n. 26), p. 616.
112. Jaime Larry Benchimol, "Adolpho Lutz: um esboço biográfico, " in Adolpho Lutz e a história da medicina tropical no Brasil, ed. Benchimol, special issue of História, Ciências, Saúde- Manguinhos, 2003, 10 (1): 13-83, quotation on p. 22.
113. Lutz, A Opilaçao ou Hypoemia Intertropical (n. 28), p. 180.
114. Benchimol, "Febre amarela" (n. 32), pp. 67-68.
115. David J. McCreery, The Sweat of Their Brow: A History of Work in Latin America (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2000), pp. 107-44.
116. Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, s.v. "Tun-Tun" (by André Posada Arango), under the direction of M. A. Dechambre, series 3, vol. 18, TRA-TZI (Paris: G. Masson; P. Asselin, 1885), pp. 389-90.
117. It would appear, though he gives no dates other than that of his return from Europe, that Posada Arango had discovered ankylostoma in tuntunientos by the mid-1870s. He had published an article with his observations on Tun-tun in 1870 in El Pabellón Médico, a Madrid journal, before making the link with Griesinger's work on Egyptian chlorosis.
118. On Posada Arango, see also Quevedo et al., Café y gusanos (n. 11), p. 153, which dates the French dictionary article according to a subsequent 1887 edition.
119. Posada Arango, "Tun-Tun" (n. 37), pp. 389-90.
120. Mary Roldán, personal communication, 25 March 2009.
121. On frontier development in this region of nineteenth-century Colombia, see Catherine Legrand, Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1850-1936 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
122. H. Prowe, "Un caso de ankylostomum intestinale, " La Universidad. Organo del instituto nacional del mismo nombre, no. 8, ser. 1, January 1889: 12-15.
123. H. Prowe, "Un caso de ankylostomum intestinale, " La Universidad. Organo del instituto nacional del mismo nombre, no. 8, January 1889, Ibid., p. 13.
124. H. Prowe, "Anquilostomiasis en Centro-América, " La Juventud Médica, 1901, 3 : 262.
125. "Extracts from the Doctorate Thesis by Manuel Cabrera" and "Report on Hookworm Work Done in Salvador, November 1915, " folder 220, box 36, series 2, Record Group 5, Rockefeller Foundation Archives (hereafter RF), Rockefeller Archive Center (hereafter RAC), Sleepy Hollow, New York.
126. On the role of German planters, see David McCreery, Rural Guatemala, 1760-1940 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1994), pp. 232-34.
127. McCreery, Rural Guatemala (n. 42), p. 195.
128. McCreery, Rural Guatemala (n. 42), p. 195, Ibid.
129. Prowe, "Anquilostomiasis en Centro-América" (n. 42), p. 262.
130. Rockefeller Sanitary Commission, Hookworm Infection in Foreign Countries (n. 1), p. 31.
131. "Extracts from the Doctorate Thesis by Manuel Cabrera" (n. 42).
132. J. B. Agnoli, "Consideraciones sobre dos casos de anemia, por anchylostoma duodenale, " La Crónica Médica, 31 Jan. 1893, 5 : 6-25, quotation on p. 19.
133. J. B. Agnoli, "Consideraciones sobre dos casos de anemia, por anchylostoma duodenale, " La Crónica Médica, 31 Jan. 1893, 5, Ibid., pp. 6-25.
134. Carlos Durán, "Anquilostomiasis en Costa Rica, " La Escuela de Medicina, 1895, 3 (2): 98-100.
135. Gerardo Jiménez, "El cansancio: notas para contribuir al estudio de esta enfermedad en Costa Rica, " Gaceta Oficial, 1900, 22-25 March, nos. 67-70.
136. Solón Núñez, "La Ankylostomiasis, " Boletín de la Subsecretaria de Higiene y Salud Pública, 1923, 1 (1): 11-15.
137. Jiménez, "El cansancio" (n. 49).
138. Based on discussions with Iván Molina, an expert on Costa Rican coffee development in the nineteenth century.
139. Bailey K. Ashford, A Soldier in Science: The Autobiography of Bailey K. Ashford (New York: William Morrow, 1934), p. 4;.
140. see also Superior Board of Health of Puerto-Rico, Anemia (Puerto Rico, 1899), p. 11;.
141. and Bailey K. Ashford and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravidez, "Summary of Ten Years' Campaign against Hookworm Infestation in Porto Rico, " JAMA, 28 May 1910, 54 (22): 1757-1761.
142. My description generally follows the elegant rendition of Ettling, The Germ of Laziness (n. 6), pp. 29-30.
143. The connection would have been well known to sufferers as well, and we should not discount the possibility that some popular healers and domestic practitioners had made an empirical connection between the symptoms of cansancio and intestinal worms and employed natural or patent medicine vermifuges to combat it. Another empirical connection was also possible. Extracts and patent medicines made from chenopodium were commonly used to rid people of roundworm (the more visible Ascaris) in Mesoamerica. The domestic vermifugal use of the common chenopodium plant in the region dated from pre-Columbian times (it was known as apazotl, later Hispanized in nonindigenous regions as apazote, and té de México), and in 1915 a pharmaceutical preparation of oil of chenopodium would be adopted by Rockefeller International Health as a more effective hookworm killer than thymol. So it may have been common for people to feel relief from cansancio after taking this common vermifuge for roundworm and subsequently addressing cansancio with oil of chenopodium. See Steven Palmer, "Toward Responsibility in International Health: Deaths Following Treatment in Rockefeller Hookworm Campaigns, 1914 -1934, " Med. Hist., forthcoming. Lutz, A Opilaçao ou Hypoemia Intertropical (n. 28), pp. 222-24, documents his experiments with Brazilian popular herbal-based remedies for opilaçao (chenopodium was not one of them), which he pronounced ineffective.
144. Laird Bergad, "Agrarian History of Puerto Rico, 1870-1930, " Lat. Amer. Res. Rev., 1978, 13 (3): 63.
145. Laird Bergad, "Agrarian History of Puerto Rico, 1870-1930, " Lat. Amer. Res. Rev., 1978, 13 (3), Ibid., pp. 63-73.
146. Bailey K. Ashford, "Ankylostomiasis in Puerto Rico, " in Kean, Mott, and Russell, Tropical Medicine and Parasitology (n. 17), 2: 314 -18;.
147. originally published in New York Med. J., 1900, 71 : 552-56.
148. New York Med. J., 1900, 71, Ibid., p. 317.
149. See also José G. Amador, "'Redeeming the Tropics': Public Health and National Identity in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Brazil, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2008), pp. 118-20.
150. Looss, Anatomy and Life History (n. 30).
151. For discussions of the significance of the work of Looss, see especially Farley, Bilharzia (n. 7), pp. 52-61;.
152. Rockefeller Foundation, "Introduction, " Bibliography of Hookworm Disease (n. 32), pp. xvii-xviii;.
153. Ettling, Germ of Laziness (n. 6), p. 33;.
154. and W. D. Foster, A History of Parasitology (Edinburgh: E & S Livingstone, 1965), pp. 2, 64, 85.
155. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy (n. 22), pp. 183-85.
156. Sandwith, Medical Diseases of Egypt (n. 31), pp. 255-56.
157. Foster, A History of Parasitology (n. 59), p. 188.
158. Griesinger, "Clinical and Anatomical Observations" (n. 18), 2: 293.
159. Otto Wucherer, "On a Disease Commonly Called 'Oppilaçao' or 'Cançaço, '" in Kean, Mott, and Russell, eds., Tropical Medicine and Parasitology (n. 17) 1: 294 -97;.
160. and Peard, Race, Place and Medicine (n. 10).
161. Giorgio Cosmacini, Milano capitale sanitaria. Modelli ideali, organizzativi, assistenziali, scientifici (1881-1950) (Firenze: Le Monnier, 2002), pp. 18-20, on the role of the St. Gothard discoveries in this process.
162. The term was coined in Cueto, Excelencia en la periferia (n. 10).
163. Rigau-Pérez, "Bailey Ashford" (n. 6 ), pp. 54 -56;.
164. on Agnoli, see Hermilio Valdizán, Diccionario de Medicina Peruana, 3 vols. (Lima: Talleres Larco Herrera, 1923), 1: 50;.
165. and Marcos Cueto, El Regreso de las epidemias. Salud y sociedad en el Perú del siglo XX (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2000), pp. 36-38.
166. Jaime L. Benchimol and Luiz Antônio Texeira, Cobras e lagartos & outros bichos: uma história comparativa dos Institutos Butantã e Oswaldo Cruz (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fiocruz; Editora da UFRJ, 1994).
167. Marcos Cueto, "Nacionalismo y ciencias médicas: los inicios de la investigación biomédica en el Perú, 1900-1950, " Quipu, 1987, 4 (3): 327-55.
168. On Durán, see Palmer, Popular Medicine to Medical Populism (n. 11), pp. 70-77;.
169. and Dictionary of Medical Biography, s.v. "Carlos Durán" (by Steven Palmer).
170. "Informe presentado al Señor Ministro de Gobernación y Policía por los doctores Luis Paulino Jiménez y FedeRico Carlos Alvarado comisionados por el Supremo Gobierno para estudiar y combatir la Ankilostomiasis en Costa Rica, " la Gaceta. Diario oficial, 27 October 1908: 477.
171. "Informe presentado al Señor Ministro de Gobernación y Policía por los doctores Luis Paulino Jiménez y FedeRico Carlos Alvarado comisionados por el Supremo Gobierno para estudiar y combatir la Ankilostomiasis en Costa Rica, " la Gaceta. Diario oficial, 1908,. Ibid., pp. 478-79.
172. Mauro Fernández, la anquilostomiasis y la agricultura (San José: Imprenta de Avelino Alsina, 1907).
173. Osorio de Almeida, "Campanha contra a ankylostomiase no Estado do Rio de Janeiro, " Revista Médica de Sao Paulo, 1913, 16 : 4 -17.
174. Nísia Trindade Lima and Gilberto Hochman, "Condenado por la raza, absuelto por la medicina: El Brasil descubierto por el movimiento médico-higienista de la Primera República, " in Avatares de la medicalización en América Latin, 1870-1970, ed. Diego Armus (Buenos Aires: Lugar Editorial, 2005), pp. 145-69;.
175. Hochman, A Era do saneamento (n. 10) pp. 103-4;.
176. the discourse of reformist physician Miguel Pereira from Jornal Comércio, 11 October 1916, is reproduced and discussed in Domenichi Miranda de Sá, "Brasil Imenso Hospital, " Cultures of Health: A Historical Anthology, http://hih.uwindsor.ca/wordpress/index.php/2008/11/19/ brasil-inmenso-hospital/(last accessed 2 August 2009). Though it never managed to coalesce at the national state level, a similar process was at work in Colombia, where the local version of district medical officers mapped tun-tun as an extensive problem in the rural areas and developed prophylactic programs;.
177. see Victoria Estrada Orrego, "Comienzos de una epidemiología de terreno en Colombia, " in Higienizar, medicar, gobernar. Historia, medicina y sociedad en Colombia, ed. Jorge Márquez, Álvaro Casas, and Victoria Estrada (Medellín: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2004), pp. 127-57.
178. Rodríguez Ocaña and Menéndez Navarro, "Higiene contra la anemia de los mineros" (n. 8), p. 222.
179. Henry Strachan, untitled note, Brit. Med. J., 27 June 1885, 1 : 1291-92.
180. Cited in "Report on work for Relief and Control of Uncinariasis in British Guiana, 1 Oct. to 31 Dec. 1916, " pp. 26-27, folder 2094, box 170, series 3, Record Group 5, RF-RAC.
181. Sandwith, Medical Diseases of Egypt (n. 31), p. 255.
182. Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report, 1913-1914 (n. 4), p. 99;.
183. J. D. MacDonald, "Ankylostomiasis, " Ceylon Med. J., 1887-88, 1 : pp. 23-24, .
184. cited in Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease (n. 11), pp. 47-48.
185. Beaven Rake, "Sudden Death from Ankylostomiasis, " Brit. Med. J., Sept. 21, 1889: 656-57. Here we return to the migration of South Asian indentured laborers that so preoccupied Rose. Transported to the British Caribbean, mostly to British Guiana and Trinidad, in the hundreds of thousands to replace the former slave populations following emancipation in 1840, they faced excruciating conditions on the plantations marked by severe overcrowding in estate barracks. Gathered together in dense concentrations, overworked, barefoot, and defecating "ad lib" in the moist soils of the sugar, rice, and cocoa plantations in the course of their work, they were excellent hosts for their lowly visitor;.
186. K. O. Laurence, A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration into Trinidad and British Guiana, 1875-1917 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 229-33.
187. Sandwith, Medical Diseases of Egypt (n. 31), pp. 243-45;.
188. Looss, Anatomy and Life History (n. 30), 2: 207-9.
189. Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases: A Manual of the Diseases of Warm Climates (London: Cassell and Company, 1898), pp. 537-38, 546.
190. María Silvia di Liscia, Gilberto Hochman, and Steven Palmer, eds., Patologías de la Patria. Enfermedad y nación en las Américas (Buenos Aires, forthcoming).
191. Kummerfeldt to Rose, 16 September 1912; and for the response, Rose to Kummerfeldt, 17 October 1912; folder 113, box 8, series 1.2, Record Group 5, RF-RAC.
192. White to Rose, 5 Nov. 1914, folder 89, box 6, series 1.2, Record Group 5, RF-RAC.
193. Walter Rowan to Rose, 30 March 1915, folder 115, box 8, series 1.2, Record Group 5, RF-RAC.
194. "Informe presentado por la delegación de la República de Costa Rica, " Actas de la Cuarta Conferencia Sanitaria Internacional de las Republicas Americanas (Washington, D.C.: Unión Panamericana, 1910), p. 133;.
195. Palmer, From Popular Medicine to Medical Populism (n. 11), pp. 161-62.
196. Rose, "Memorandum for Dr. White (draft), " 21 February 1914, folder 86, box 6, series 1.2, Record Group 5, RF-RAC.
197. White to Rose, 25 May 1914, folder 87, box 6, series 1.2, Record Group 5, RF-RAC.
198. Löwy, "'Intervenir et représenter'" (n. 12), pp. 337-62.
199. On British Guiana, see Steven Palmer, "'O Demônio que se transformou em vermes': a traduçao da saude pública no Caribe Britânico, 1914 -1920, " Histôria, Ciencias, Saude-Manguinhos, 2006, 13 (3): 571-89;.
200. and Palmer, Launching Global Health: The Caribbean Odyssey of the Rockefeller Foundation (University of Michigan Press, in press). On Sri Lanka, .
201. see Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease (n. 11).