Listening to the sirens: Music as queer ethical practice

GLQ

Volumn 9, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 433-470

  Peraino, Judith A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 75949087672     PISSN: 10642684     EISSN: 15279375     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/10642684-9-4-433     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. See Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, ed. Henry Abelove, Michele Aina Barale, and David M. Halperin (New York: Routledge, 1993), 227-54.
2. See William L. Leap, Word's Out: Gay Men's English (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 101-2.
3. See The Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed. (OED), s.v. "queer"; and Eric Partridge, Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, 4th ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1966). Both the OED and Partridge state that the Scottish use precedes and has no connection to the German.
4. The OED cites the phrase " 'queer' in sexual behavior" from William Healy, Practical Value of Scientific Study of Juvenile Delinquents (Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, 1922), 8.
5. See Annamarie Jagose, Queer Theory: An Introduction (New York: New York University Press, 1996), esp. 1-6, 72 - 100;
6. and Michael Warner, The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), esp. 33-40.
7. David M. Halperin, Saint Foucault: Towards a Gay Hagiography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 62.
8. See also Jagose, Queer Theory, 98;
9. and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Tendencies (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993), xii.
10. Sedgwick, Tendencies, 8.
11. The classic article on this issue is Gayle S. Rubin, "Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality," in Abelove, Barale, and Halperin, The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, 3 -44.
12. Regarding the sexualization of Saracens and other associations with medieval Iberia, see Josiah Blackmore and Gregory S. Hutcheson, eds., Queer Iberia: Sexualities, Cultures, and Crossings from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999);
13. regarding the Lollards, see Carolyn Dinshaw, Getting Medieval: Sex- ualities and Communities, Pre- and Postmodern (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 55-99.
14. Philip Brett, "Musicality, Essentialism, and the Closet," in Queering the Pitch: The New Gay and Lesbian Musicology, ed. Philip Brett, Elizabeth Wood, and Gary C. Thomas (New York: Routledge, 1994), 9-26.
15. Suzanne Cusick, "On a Lesbian Relationship with Music: A Serious Effort Not to Think Straight," in Brett, Wood, and Thomas, Queering the Pitch, 67-83.
16. Scholarship exploring music and gay, lesbian, and queer sexuality has grown exponentially since the early 1990s. Influential books and articles include Susan McClary, "Constructions of Subjectivity in Schubert's Music," in Brett, Wood, and Thomas, Queering the Pitch, 205 - 33;
17. Mitchell Morris, "Reading As an Opera Queen," in Musi- cology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Music Scholarship, ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 184-200;
18. Wayne Koestenbaum, The Queen's Throat: Opera, Homosexuality, and the Mystery of Desire (New York: Poseidon, 1993);
19. and Elizabeth Wood, "Sapphonics," in Brett, Wood, and Thomas, Queering the Pitch, 27-66.
20. For a thorough survey of and substantial contribution to this scholarship see Sophie Fuller and Lloyd Whitesell, eds., Queer Episodes in Music and Modern Identity (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), esp. 1-21.
21. Michel Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics," in Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth, ed. Paul Rabinow, vol. 1 of The Essential Works of Foucault, 1954-1984, trans.
22. Robert Hurley et al., 3 vols. (New York: New, 1997-2000), 266;
23. Foucault, "Technologies of the Self" ibid., 225.
24. Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," 225.
25. See also Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics," 263.
26. Michel Foucault, "The Ethics of the Concern for Self As a Practice of Freedom," in Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth, 282.
27. See, e.g., Marjorie Garber, Beatrice Hanssen, and Rebecca L. Walkowitz, eds., The Turn to Ethics (New York: Routledge, 2000);
28. Robert Eaglestone, Ethical Criticism: Reading after Levinas (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997);
29. Zygmunt Bau- man, Life in Fragments: Essays in Postmodern Morality (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995);
30. Bauman, Postmodern Ethics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993);
31. and Tobin Siebers, The Ethics of Criticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988).
32. For an overview of this "ethical turn" and the centrality of Levinas see Lawrence Buell, "What We Talk about When We Talk about Ethics," in Garber, Hanssen, and Wal- kowitz, The Turn to Ethics, 1-13.
33. Emmanuel Levinas, "No Identity," in Collected Philosophical Papers, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Dordrecht: Nijhoff, 1987), 149.
34. The opposing stances of Levinas and Foucault stem in part from their subject positions and cultural backgrounds. Levinas's elevation of social responsibility over individual resistance has roots in Judaism and Platonism. As a Jewish thinker and Talmudic scholar who suffered great personal loss in the Holocaust, Levinas is highly invested in exploring the nature of collective identities and in pursuing an ethics that transcends cultural boundaries.
35. See Hilary Putnam, "Levinas and Judaism," in The Cambridge Companion to Levinas, ed. Simon Critchley and Robert Bernasconi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 33-62;
36. for an example of how Levinas integrates his ethical philosophy with Talmudic reading see "The Pact," in The Levinas Reader, ed. Sean Hand (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 211-26.
37. See Alexander Nehamas, The Art of Living: Socratic Reflections from Plato to Foucault (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 157-88
38. Nehamas, "Subject and Abject: The Examined Life of Michel Foucault," New Republic, 15 February 1993, 27-36
39. James Miller, The Passion of Michel Foucault (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993). Despite his extensive critique of the pathologizing rhetoric in Miller's biography (Saint Foucault, 126 - 85), Halperin maintains that Foucault's life, work, and activism are necessarily connected.
40. "Modern antihumanism, which denies the primacy that the human person, a free end in itself, has for the signification of being, is true over and above the reasons it gives itself. It makes a place for subjectivity positing itself in abnegation, in sacrifice, and in substitution. Its great intuition is to have abandoned the idea of persona as an end in itself. The Other (Autrui) is the end, and me, I am a hostage" (Emmanuel Levinas, "Substitution," in Basic Philosophical Writings, ed. Adriaan T. Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Bernasconi [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996], 94).
41. On the inaccuracies in Foucault's interpretations of Greek thought see Pierre Hadot, "Reflections on the Notion of 'the Cultivation of the Self,'" in Michel Foucault, Philosopher: Essays Translated from the French and German, ed. Timothy J. Armstrong (New York: Routledge, 1992), 225-32
42. Arnold I. Davidson, "Ethics As Ascetics: Foucault, the History of Ethics, and Ancient Thought," in The Cambridge Companion to Foucault, ed. Gary Gutting (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 115 - 40.
43. Nehamas, Art of Living, 178;
44. see also 177-79.
45. On Levinas's opinions of art see Eaglestone, Ethical Criticism, 98 - 163.
46. The Odyssey is the first written account of sirens, and Homer does not describe their appearance, though contemporaneous and pre-Homeric vase and tomb decorations depict them as half human (most often woman) and half bird. Sirens appear in a variety of contexts in both pre- and post-Homeric art: as evil omens, as emissaries from the divine world, and in association with a number of deities, such as Artemis, Athena, and Dionysus. During the sixth century B.C.E. the siren became a symbol of a blessed afterlife. See John Pollard, Seer, Shrines, and Sirens: The Greek Religious Revolution in the Sixth Century B.C. (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965), 137-45.
47. Unless specified, all translations of the Odyssey are quoted from R. D. Dawe, The Odyssey: Translation and Analysis (Lewes: Book Guild, 1993), 470-82. Dawe uses various typefaces to distinguish lines that he feels are late interpolations. I do not call attention to these lines, since they were transmitted in oral and written traditions despite ancient and modern arguments over their "authenticity." I also standardize the transliteration of κk to k.
48. For my discussion of ancient Greek words I have consulted Pietro Pucci and the Perseus Digital Library, an electronic resource for classical literature (www.perseus.tufts.edu), which includes an on-line edition of Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek- English Lexicon, rev. and enl. Sir Henry Stuart Jones (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940).
49. For the etymology of the name Kirke see also L. Darcey, "The Name of Circe and the Portolans of Archaic Greece," Les etudes classiques 53 (1985): 185-91.
50. The name Siren may also stem from the Semitic sir, meaning "song." For other possibilities see Pietro Pucci, The Song of the Sirens: Essays on Homer (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998), 8 n. 13;
51. and Siegfried de Rachewiltz, De Sirenibus: An Inquiry into Sirens from Homer to Shakespeare (New York: Garland, 1987), 24. The following discussion owes much to these two studies.
52. For the sexual connotations of these words see Seth L. Schein, "Female Representations and Interpreting the Odyssey," in The Distaff Side: Representing the Female in Homer's "Odyssey," ed. Beth Cohen (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 21;
53. Schein, introduction to Reading the "Odyssey": Selected Interpretive Essays, ed. Seth L. Schein (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 25-26;
54. and Pucci, "The Song of the Sirens," in Schein, Reading the "Odyssey," 198-99.
55. Pucci, "The Song of the Sirens," 196.
56. Translated in Pucci, The Song of the Sirens, 1, with a minor adaptation. Pucci renders the opening epithet for Odysseus here as "skillful in telling stories" and elsewhere as "honored" ("The Song of the Sirens," 191)
57. and "famous for your stories" (Odysseus Polutropos: Intertextual Readings in the "Odyssey" and the "Iliad" [Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995], 210).
58. Dawe's translation is "much-praised Odysseus" (The Odyssey, 481). I attempt to maintain the ambiguity of the epithet.
59. For a discussion of this scene see Pucci, Odysseus Polutropos, 214-27.
60. Rachewiltz, De Sirenibus, 15 -16. Rachewiltz argues that Odysseus listens with impunity and thus effectively steals the Sirens' song. The theme of his thievery appears throughout the epic.
61. Pucci, "The Song of the Sirens," 196.
62. One vase decoration shows a pre-Homeric version of the Siren story in which the Sirens throw themselves into the sea in despair once Odysseus has safely passed. Homer's episode, then, represents a significant paradigm shift, in which the consequence to the Sirens is unimportant. "In the new context of the Odyssey, the victory of the man of many schemes, his successful outwitting of the Sirens and his breaking their spell, which no one has ever been able to withstand yet, becomes his suffering and escape" (Karl Reinhardt, "The Adventures in the Odyssey," in Reading the "Odyssey," 76).
63. In 8.537 Odysseus also describes the instrument of Demodokos as a phorminga ligeian [clear-sounding phorminx].
64. On women in the Odyssey see Cohen, Distaff Side. For a feminist reading of the Odyssey see Lillian Eileen Doherty, Siren Songs: Gender, Audiences, and Narrators in the "Odyssey" (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995).
65. Ann Carson notes that for ancient Greek writers, stoma (mouth, lips, entrance) can refer to the orifice of vocal activity as well as sexual activity, and she discusses constructions of female speech and sound as the antithesis to masculine self-control ("The Gender of Sound," Thamyris 1 [1994]: 10-31).
66. See David M. Halperin, "Platonic Eros and What Men Call Love," Ancient Philosophy 5 (1985): 161-204;
67. see esp. 163-66, 176-77.
68. Page duBois, Torture and Truth (New York: Routledge, 1991), 75. The following discussion refers to pp. 63-74 and 75-91 of this study. Carson argues that the connection of the female mouth and genitals points toward "women's allegedly definitive tendency to put the inside on the outside" and to discharge the unspeakable ("The Gender of Sound," 28). Thus women were associated both with interiority and with its exposure.
69. Michel Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, vol. 2 of The History of Sexuality, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage, 1990), 8.
70. Foucault writes about the Sirens' song in the midst of a discussion of Blanchot's writings in "Maurice Blanchot: The Thought of the Outside," in Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology, ed. James D. Faubion, vol. 2 of Essential Works, 160-63. He notes that Odysseus listens to a song that is only an elusive and fatal promise of a future song about his past identity. With its "speech that is indissociably echo and denial," the Sirens' dissimulating song effects what Foucault describes as a luring out of interiority and a voiding of identity. For Foucault, this immobilizing void is the seduction of the Sirens' song; it is an attraction to an outside that will hollow out our identity. Though not rigorously developed here, Foucault is describing a getting free of the self: "To lend an ear to the silvery voice of the Sirens ⋯ is not simply to abandon the world. ⋯ it is suddenly to feel grow within oneself a desert at the other end of which (but this immeasurable distance is also as thin as a line) gleams a language without assignable subject ⋯ a personal pronoun without a person" (163).
71. See Rachewiltz, De Sirenibus, 70-73.
72. See Fredric Jameson, "On the Sexual Production of Western Subjectivity; or, Saint Augustine As a Social Democrat," in Gaze and Voice As Love Objects, ed. Renata Salecl and Slavoj ŽiŽek (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 174-77;
73. and Peter Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
74. For a detailed discussion of this struggle for definition see Johannes Quasten, Music and Worship in Pagan and Christian Antiquity, trans. Boniface Ramsey (Washington, D.C.: National Association of Pastoral Musicians, 1983), 59 - 120.
75. I have modified the Latin translation from Paul F. Gehl, "Competens Silentium: Varieties of Monastic Silence in the Medieval West," Viator 18 (1987): 138. The Latin reads: "Omnes loquuntur, et nullus obstrepit. Psalmum reges sine potestatis super- cilio resultant. In hoc se ministerio David gaudebat videri. Psalmus cantatur ab imperatoribus, jubilatur a populis ⋯ et saxa respondent."
76. I quote this verse from The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, ed. Herbert G. May and Bruce M. Metzger (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 1071.
77. I quote the Latin from Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, ed. Bonifatio Fischer, Iohanne Gribomont, H. F. D. Sparks, and W. Theile, 2 vols. (Stuttgart: Württember- gische Bibelanstalt, 1969), 2:1349.
78. The translation of this phrase is my own. I was directed to this passage by a reference in a review article by Richard Crocker, "Two Recent Editions of Aquitainian Polyphony," Plainsong and Medieval Music 3 (1994): 90;
79. see 89 -91 for a concise description of singing una voce doctrine.
80. See also Quas- ten, Music and Worship, 66 -72.
81. For the Clement quotation see Quasten, Music and Worship, 67.
82. Augustine, Confessions, trans. F. J. Sheed, rev. ed. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1993). All translations from the Confessions are taken from this edition.
83. Augustine, The City of God, trans. Marcus Dods (New York: Modern Library, 1993).
84. See Confessions, book 8, for Augustine's agonizing prior to his conversion. See also Jameson, "On the Sexual Production of Western Subjectivity," 167-76.
85. Michel Foucault, "Sexuality and Solitude," in Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth, 182 - 83.
86. Jameson, "On the Sexual Production of Western Subjectivity," 177.
87. I modify Sheed's translation in this and the previous passage slightly.
88. Bruce W. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire in Medieval Culture: Hildegard of Bin- gen to Chaucer (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 76-77.
89. James McKinnon, ed., Music in Early Christian Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 155 ("when sung with fluent voice and music that is most appropriate");
90. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 75 ("when in a fluid voice and with the most suitable measure");
91. Confessions, 198 ("When they are sung with a clear voice and proper modulation"). I thank Charles Francis Brittain and Richard Crocker for consulting with me on this matter.
92. Augustine defines modulatio in book 1.2.3 (see On Music, trans. Robert Taliaferro, in Writings of Saint Augustine, vol. 2 [New York: Cima, 1947]).
93. Gehl, "Competens Silentium," 129.
94. "Flete mecum et pro me flete qui aliquid boni vobiscum intus agitis, unde facta pro-cedunt. nam qui non agitis, non vos haec movent. tu autem, domine deus meus, exaudi: respice et vide et miserere et sana me, in cuius oculis mihi quaestio factus sum, et ipse est languor meus" (Augustine, Confessions, ed. James J. O'Donnell, 3 vols. [Oxford: Clarendon, 1992], 1:139).
95. Summarized from Foucault, "Technologies of the Self."
96. Marcia L. Colish, Stoicism in Christian Latin Thought through the Sixth Century, vol. 2 of The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages (Leiden: Brill, 1985), 207-38
97. see esp. 212-20. See also Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 28-29.
98. See Hildegard of Bingen, Symphonia: A Critical Edition of the "Symphonia Armonie Celestium Revelationum," ed. Barbara Newman (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 1-6.
99. On Hildegard and monastic reform see Jo Ann McNamara, "Forward to the Past: Hildegard of Bingen and Twelfth-Century Monastic Reform," in Hildegard of Bingen, Explanation of "The Rule of Benedict," trans. Hugh Feiss (Toronto: Peregrina, 2000), 15 - 16, 21-23.
100. See Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, esp. chap. 3;
101. see also Kathryn L. Bumpass, "A Musical Reading of Hildegard's Responsory 'Spiritui Sancto,'" in Hildegard of Bin- gen: A Book of Essays, ed. Maud Burnett McInerney (New York: Garland, 1998), 153 -73.
102. See R. Howard Bloch, Medieval Misogyny and the Invention of Western Romantic Love (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), esp. 37-63;
103. and Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), esp. 260-76.
104. Bloch, Medieval Misogyny, 99;
105. see also 97-109.
106. Text translated by Newman, Saint Hildegard of Bingen, Symphonia, 134 - 35. Newman offers both literal and poetic translations of Hildegard's lyrics. In all cases I quote from the literal translation.
107. See Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 104.
108. This passage is from a prayer introducing three lyric pieces on the theme of nuns as brides of Christ in the miscellany appended to the Symphonia (late 1150s). The quote is from John Stevens, "The Musical Individuality of Hildegard's Songs: A Liturgical Shadowland," in Hildegard of Bingen: The Context of Her Thought and Art, ed. Charles Burnett and Peter Dronke (London: Warburg Institute, School of Advanced Study, University of London, 1998), 177. See also Newman, Saint Hildegard of Bin- gen, Symphonia, 69, item c.
109. See Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 114-18.
110. See Stevens, "The Musical Individuality of Hildegard's Songs," 163 -88
111. Margot Fassler, "Composer and Dramatist: 'Melodious Singing and the Freshness of Remorse,' " in Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World, ed. Barbara Newman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 149-75.
112. Hildegard wrote a few chants for the Mass, but only in genres that were still "open" to new compositions: seven sequences (considered paraliturgical), one Alleluia, and one Kyrie. See Fassler, "Composer and Dramatist," 151; on Hildegard's use of a chant model see 166 -68.
113. Constant Mews, "Religious Thinker: 'A Frail Human Being' on Fiery Life," in Newman, Voice of the Living Light, 62.
114. See also Mews, "Hildegard and the Schools," in Burnett and Dronke, Hildegard of Bingen, 103.
115. Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias, trans. Columba Hart and Jane Bishop (New York: Paulist, 1990), 3.13.12-13. All translations from Scivias are taken from this edition.
116. I have found two German sources for this image. The first, a depiction of the Annunciation in an initial from a gradual (c. 1300, probably from the convent of Sankt Kartharinenthal, at Lake Constance), shows the dove at the left ear of the Virgin (Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, by exchange, 1982; the image is available through the Art Museum Image Consortium [AMICO] Library at www.amico.org). The second is discussed below.
117. This passage comes from a response letter to an unidentified group of priests. Quoted in Barbara Newman, Sister of Wisdom: Saint Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 175.
118. Newman B., 1989, Sister of Wisdom: Saint Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, Ibid., 175.
119. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cloisters Collection, 1993.251.1; the image is available through the AMICO Library at www.amico.org.
120. This passage is from her famous letter to the prelates at Mainz, dated around 1178 -79, explaining her theology of music in response to their interdict against her nuns singing the liturgy. It is quoted in Newman, Sister of Wisdom, 194-95; see also Newman's discussion here.
121. Barbara Newman and Rebecca L. R. Garber note that Hildegard seemed to ignore the affective Mariology of Bernard of Clairvaux and Elisabeth von Schönau. Garber writes: "She had no visions of Mary, no images of suckling from Mary's breast, nor did she write a Marian legend. Neither did she encourage her nuns to give birth to Christ in their hearts in imitation of the Virgin. Within the Scivias and the Marian lyrics, Mary appears almost exclusively at the point of the Incarnation" ("Where Is the Body? Images of Eve and Mary in the Scivias," in >sc
122. See also Newman, Sister of Wisdom, 159-60.
123. Garber briefly notes that singing Hildegard's chants could be understood as a form of imitatio Mariae (123). For a more in-depth discussion of this idea see Fassler, "Composer and Dramatist," 159-68, esp. 166-67.
124. Figure 1 is my own transcription of the respond from O quam preciosa (Riesencodex), Wiesbaden, Hessische Landsbibliothek, Hs. 2, f. 468. Fassler argues similarly that the popular image of the tree of Jesse functioned as a type of compositional model for Hildegard's Scivias songs ("Composer and Dramatist," 161). See also Fassler's analysis of Hildegard's responsory O tu suavissima virga (162 -64).
125. A quick survey of other responsories shows that the leap of a fifth from d-a>sup<1>/sup< and the use of a>sup<1>/sup< as a hovering point are common to mode 1 responsories, whereas mode 2 responsories tend to hover around f and frequently dip down to C. See also Marianne Richert Pfau, "Mode and Melody Type in Hildegard von Bingen's Symphonia," Sonus 11 (1990): 53-71.
126. Melismatic extensions of important ultimate or penultimate words are common in the chant repertory, and by the early twelfth century there was a large repertory of "plug-in" or substitute melismas, many of which show repetition patterns such as aab, and descending sequences of note groups. For a transcription of some plug-in melis- mas and a discussion see Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton, 1978), 146-48.
127. Holsinger, drawing on Wood's idea of "Sapphonics," concludes that Hildegard's music "creates sonorous spaces of lesbian possibility" (Music, Body, and Desire, 129).
128. Susan Schibanoff attempts to connect Hildegard's music to a specific and possibly erotic attachment to one of her nuns ("Hildegard of Bingen and Richardis of Stade: The Discourse of Desire," in Same Sex Love and Desire among Women in the Middle Ages, ed. Francesca Canadé Sautman and Pamela Sheingorn [New York: Palgrave, 2001], 49-83).
129. For a recent study of the authorization of virginity see Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, Saints' Lives and Women's Literary Culture c. 1150-1300: Virginity and Its Authorizations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
130. Barbara Newman, " 'Sibyl of the Rhine': Hildegard's Life and Times," in Newman, Voice of the Living Light, 27-28.
131. See Randall Sullivan, "A Boy's Life: Kip Kinkel and the Springfield, Oregon Shootings, Part 1," Rolling Stone, 17 September 1998, 81;
132. and Peter Wilkinson with Matt Hendrickson, "Columbine, Humiliation, and Revenge: The Story of Reb and VoDka," Rolling Stone, 10 June 1999, 51.
133. U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Music Violence: How Does It Affect Our Children? 105 Cong., 1st sess. (6 November 1997), 5.
134. See Jeffrey Arnett, "Heavy Metal Music and Reckless Behavior among Adolescents," Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20 (1991): 573-92.
135. For a critical discussion of Marilyn Manson see Robert Wright, " 'I'd Sell You Suicide': Pop Music and Moral Panic in the Age of Marilyn Manson," Popular Music 19 (2001): 365 - 85.
136. Manson wrote an articulate response to his critics in "Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?" Rolling Stone, 10 June 1999, 23 -24, 77.
137. See also the fall 1999 issue of Popular Music and Society, which includes a special forum on the attack on popular music after the Columbine shootings.
138. Manson, "Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?" 23 -24, 77.
139. These lyrics are taken from "The Beautiful People," cowritten with Twiggy Ramirez.
140. The video, directed by Sean Beavan and Joseph F. Cultice, was released by Nothing/ Interscope Records in 1998.
141. Michel Foucault with B. Gallagher and A. Wilson, "Sex, Power, and the Politics of Identity," in Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth, 165 -70.
142. Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, 25.
143. U.S. Senate, Music Violence, 5.
144. Music Violence, Ibid., 4.
145. In 1997 Seagram's, originally a Canadian liquor company, owned Universal Music Group, which included Interscope Records, the owner and distributor of Nothing Records, Manson's label. Seagram's took over Polygram Records in 1999 and merged it with Universal Music Group, annihilating many smaller record companies such as A&M and Geffen.
146. Music Violence, Ibid., 13.
147. I interpret the song as a critique of the mainstream idolizing of pop stars who ultimately reflect the morally corrupt disposition of their fans.
148. Music Violence, Ibid., 7.
149. Music Violence, Ibid., 34.
150. Music Violence, Ibid., 40, 41.
151. Plato, Laws, trans. Trevor J. Saunders, in Complete Works, ed. John M. Cooper (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett, 1997), 1389-90.
152. U.S. Senate, Music Violence, 3.
153. Steve Hochman, "The Third Face of Marilyn Manson," Rolling Stone, 17 August 2000, 44.