The roles of Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF) in responses to emotional stress: Is CRF release a cause or result of fear/anxiety?

CNS and Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets

Volumn 8, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 459-469

  Ohmura, Yu ^a   Yoshioka, Mitsuhiro ^a  

^a HOKKAIDO UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Corticotropin releasing factor; Corticotropin releasing hormone; Fear; Stress

Indexed keywords

BINDING PROTEIN; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR ANTAGONIST; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR RECEPTOR; LIGAND; UROCORTIN; UROCORTIN II; UROCORTIN III;

ANXIETY; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; COGNITION; COPING BEHAVIOR; DRUG MECHANISM; EMOTIONAL STRESS; FEAR; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS; LEARNING; MEMORY; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN LOCALIZATION; REVIEW; REWARD; TRANQUILIZING ACTIVITY;

ANIMALS; ANXIETY; CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE; FEAR; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMUS; RECEPTORS, CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 75849136936     PISSN: 18715273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/187152709789824679     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Vedhara, K.; Hyde, J.; Gilchrist, I.D.; Tytherleigh, M.; Plummer, S. Acute stress, memory, attention and cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2000, 25, 535-549.
2. Liang, K.C.; Melia, K.R.; Campeau, S.; Falls, W.A.; Miserendino, M.J.; Davis, M. Lesions of the central nucleus of the amygdala, but not the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, block the excitatory effects of corticotropin-releasing factor on the acoustic startle reflex. J. Neurosci., 1992, 12, 2313-2320.
3. Ohmura, Y.; Yamaguchi, T.; Izumi, T.; Matsumoto, M.; Yoshioka, M. Corticotropin releasing factor in the median raphe nucleus is involved in the retrieval of fear memory in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2008, 584, 357-360.
4. Sherman, J.E.; Kalin, N.H. ICV-CRH alters stress-induced freezing behavior without affecting pain sensitivity. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 1988, 30, 801-807.
5. Spina, M.; Merlo-Pich, E.; Chan, R.K.; Basso, A.M.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.; Koob, G.F. Appetite-suppressing effects of urocortin, a CRF-related neuropeptide. Science, 1996, 273, 1561-1564.
6. Spina, M.G.; Merlo-Pich, E.; Akwa, Y.; Balducci, C.; Basso, A.M.; Zorrilla, E.P.; Britton, K.T.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.W.; Koob, G.F. Time-dependent induction of anxiogenic-like effects after central infusion of urocortin or corticotropin-releasing factor in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 2002, 160, 113-121.
7. Kehne, J.H. The CRF1 receptor, a novel target for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets, 2007, 6, 163-182.
8. Vale, W.; Spiess, J.; Rivier, C.; Rivier, J. Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and beta-endorphin. Science, 1981, 213, 1394-1397.
9. Hauger, R.L.; Grigoriadis, D.E.; Dallman, M.F.; Plotsky, P.M.; Vale, W.W.; Dautzenberg, F.M. International union of pharmacology. XXXVI. Current status of the nomenclature for receptors for corticotropin-releasing factor and their ligands. Pharmacol. Rev., 2003, 55, 21-26.
10. Dathe, M.; Fabian, H.; Gast, K.; Zirwer, D.; Winter, R.; Beyermann, M.; Schümann, M.; Bienert, M. Conformational differences of ovine and human corticotropin releasing hormone: a CD, IR, NMR and dynamic light scattering study. Int. J. Pept. Protein Res., 1996, 47, 383-393.
11. Romier, C.; Bernassau, J.M.; Cambillau, C.; Darbon, H. Solution structure of human corticotropin releasing factor by 1H NMR and distance geometry with restrained molecular dynamics. Protein Eng., 1993, 6, 149-156.
12. Castro, M.G.; Brooke, J.; Bullman, A.; Hannah, M.; Glynn, B.P.; Lowry, P.J. Biosynthesis of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) in mouse corticotrophic tumour cells expressing the human proCRH gene: intracellular storage and regulated secretion. J. Mol. Endocrinol., 1991, 7, 97-104.
13. Lauber, M.; Clavreul, C.; Vaudry, H.; Cohen, P. Immunological detection of pro-corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) in rat hypothalamus and pancreatic extracts: evidence for in vitro conversion into CRF. FEBS Lett., 1984, 173, 222-226.
14. Shibahara, S.; Morimoto, Y.; Furutani, Y.; Notake, M.; Takahashi, H.; Shimizu, S.; Horikawa, S.; Numa, S. Isolation and sequence analysis of the human corticotropin-releasing factor precursor gene. EMBO J., 1983, 2, 775-779.
15. Kertscher, U.; Beyermann, M.; Krause, E.; Furkert, J.; Berger, H.; Bienert, M.; Mehlis, B. The degradation of corticotropin-releasing factor by enzymes of the rat brain studied by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Peptides, 1998, 19, 649-658.
16. Ritchie, J.C.; Davis, T.P.; Nemeroff, C.B. Action of three ectopeptidases on corticotropin-releasing factor: metabolism and functional aspects. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2003, 28, 22-33.
17. Saphier, P.W.; Faria, M.; Grossman, A.; Coy, D.H.; Besser, G.M.; Hodson, B.; Parkes, M.; Linton, E.A.; Lowry, P.J. A comparison of the clearance of ovine and human corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) in man and sheep: a possible role for CRH-binding protein. J. Endocrinol., 1992, 133, 487-495.
18. Diamant, M.; de Wied, D. Structure-related effects of CRF and CRF-derived peptides: dissociation of behavioral, endocrine and autonomic activity. Neuroendocrinology, 1993, 57, 1071-1081.
19. Nomizu, M.; Miyamoto, M. Convulsant peptides related to corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Brain Res., 1989, 505, 326-328.
20. Martins, J.M.; Kastin, A.J.; Banks, W.A. Unidirectional specific and modulated brain to blood transport of corticotropin-releasing hormone. Neuroendocrinology, 1996, 63, 338-348.
21. Martins, J.M.; Banks, W.A.; Kastin, A.J. Acute modulation of active carrier-mediated brain-to-blood transport of corticotropin-releasing hormone. Am. J. Physiol., 1997, 272, E312-E319.
22. Martins, J.M.; Banks, W.A.; Kastin, A.J. Transport of CRH from mouse brain directly affects peripheral production of beta-endorphin by the spleen. Am. J. Physiol., 1997, 273, E1083-E1089.
23. Maillot, C.; Wang, L.; Million, M.; Taché, Y. Intraperitoneal corticotropin-releasing factor and urocortin induce Fos expression in brain and spinal autonomic nuclei and long lasting stimulation of colonic motility in rats. Brain Res., 2003, 974, 70-81.
24. Lavicky, J.; Dunn, A.J. Corticotropin-releasing factor stimulates catecholamine release in hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex in freely moving rats as assessed by microdialysis. J. Neurochem., 1993, 60, 602-612.
25. Ueno, M. Molecular anatomy of the brain endothelial barrier: an overview of the distributional features. Curr. Med. Chem., 2007, 14, 1199-1206.
26. Bloom, F.E.; Battenberg, E.L.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF): immunoreactive neurones and fibers in rat hypothalamus. Regul. Pept., 1982, 4, 43-48.
27. Orth, D.N.; Jackson, R.V.; DeCherney, G.S.; DeBold, C.R.; Alexander, A.N.; Island, D.P.; Rivier, J.; Rivier, C.; Spiess, J.; Vale, W. Effect of synthetic ovine corticotropin-releasing factor: dose response of plasma adrenocorticotropin and cortisol. J. Clin. Invest., 1983, 71, 587-595.
28. Rivier, C.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W. Inhibition of adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion in the rat by immunoneutralization of corticotropin-releasing factor. Science, 1982, 218, 377-379.
29. Moldow, R.L.; Fischman, A.J. Circadian rhythm of corticotropin releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in rat hypothalamus. Peptides, 1984, 5, 1213-1215.
30. Kiss, J.Z.; Bertini, L.T. The CRF neurosecretory vesicle: vasopressin-dependent changes in vesicle size after adrenalectomy. Brain Res., 1992, 597, 353-357.
31. Aguilera, G.; Rabadan-Diehl, C. Vasopressinergic regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: implications for stress adaptation. Regul. Pept., 2000, 96, 23-29.
32. Favrod-Coune, C.; Raux-Demay, M.C.; Proeschel, M.F.; Bertagna, X.; Girard, F.; Luton, J.P. Potentiation of the classic ovine corticotrophin releasing hormone stimulation test by the combined administration of small doses of lysine vasopressin. Clin. Endocrinol., 1993, 38, 405-410.
33. Cummings, S.; Elde, R.; Ells, J.; Lindall, A. Corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactivity is widely distributed within the central nervous system of the rat: an immunohistochemical study. J. Neurosci., 1983, 3, 1355-1368.
34. Merchenthaler, I. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)-like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system. Extrahypothalamic distribution. Peptides, 1984, 5, 53-69.
35. Sakanaka, M.; Shibasaki, T.; Lederis, K. Corticotropin releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in the rat brain as revealed by a modified cobalt-glucose oxidase-diaminobenzidine method. J. Comp. Neurol., 1987, 260, 256-298.
36. Swanson, L.W.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.W. Organization of ovine corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactive cells and fibers in the rat brain: an immunohistochemical study. Neuroendocrinology, 1983, 36, 165-186.
37. Arai, M.; Assil, I.Q.; Abou-Samra, A.B. Characterization of three corticotropin-releasing factor receptors in catfish: a novel third receptor is predominantly expressed in pituitary and urophysis. Endocrinology, 2001, 142, 446-454.
38. Perrin, M.H.; Vale, W.W. Corticotropin releasing factor receptors and their ligand family. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 1999, 885, 312-328.
39. nd.; O'Connell, S.; Rosenfeld, M.G. Identification of a seven transmembrane helix receptor for corticotropin-releasing factor and sauvagine in mammalian brain. Neuron, 1993, 11, 1187-1195.
40. Myers, D.A.; Trinh, J.V.; Myers, T.R. Structure and function of the ovine type 1 corticotropin releasing factor receptor (CRF1) and a carboxyl-terminal variant. Mol. Cell Endocrinol., 1998, 144, 21-35.
41. Vita, N.; Laurent, P.; Lefort, S.; Chalon, P.; Lelias, J.M.; Kaghad, M.; Le Fur, G.; Caput, D.; Ferrara, P. Primary structure and functional expression of mouse pituitary and human brain corticotrophin releasing factor receptors. FEBS Lett., 1993, 335, 1-5.
42. Bittencourt, J.C.; Sawchenko, P.E. Do centrally administered neuropeptides access cognate receptors? An analysis in the central corticotropin-releasing factor system. J. Neurosci., 2000, 20, 1142-1156.
43. Baigent, S.M.; Lowry, P.J. mRNA expression profiles for corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), urocortin, CRF receptors and CRF-binding protein in peripheral rat tissues. J. Mol. Endocrinol., 2000, 25, 43-52.
44. Chatzaki, E.; Murphy, B.J.; Wang, L.; Million, M.; Ohning, G.V.; Crowe, P.D.; Petroski, R.; Taché, Y.; Grigoriadis, D.E. Differential profile of CRF receptor distribution in the rat stomach and duodenum assessed by newly developed CRF receptor antibodies. J. Neurochem., 2004, 88, 1-11.
45. Dufau, M.L.; Tinajero, J.C.; Fabbri, A. Corticotropin-releasing factor: an antireproductive hormone of the testis. FASEB J., 1993, 7, 299-307.
46. Müller, M.B.; Preil, J.; Renner, U.; Zimmermann, S.; Kresse, A.E.; Stalla, G.K.; Keck, M.E.; Holsboer, F.; Wurst, W. Expression of CRHR1 and CRHR2 in mouse pituitary and adrenal gland: implications for HPA system regulation. Endocrinology, 2001, 142, 4150-4153.
47. Nappi, R.E.; Rivest, S. Stress-induced genetic expression of a selective corticotropin-releasing factor-receptor subtype within the rat ovaries: an effect dependent on the ovulatory cycle. Biol. Reprod., 1995, 53, 1417-1428.
48. Slominski, A.; Ermak, G.; Hwang, J.; Chakraborty, A.; Mazurkiewicz, J.E.; Mihm, M. Proopiomelanocortin, corticotropin releasing hormone and corticotropin releasing hormone receptor genes are expressed in human skin. FEBS Lett., 1995, 374, 113-116.
49. Grammatopoulos, D.K.; Randeva, H.S.; Levine, M.A.; Kanellopoulou, K.A.; Hillhouse, E.W. Rat cerebral cortex corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors: evidence for receptor coupling to multiple G-proteins. J. Neurochem., 2001, 76, 509-519.
50. Hillhouse, E.W.; Grammatopoulos, D.K. The molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of the biological activity of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors: implications for physiology and pathophysiology. Endocr. Rev., 2006, 27, 260-286.
51. Arzt, E.; Holsboer, F. CRF signaling: molecular specificity for drug targeting in the CNS. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 2006, 27, 531-538.
52. nd; Lin, C.R.; Rosenfeld, M.G. A sauvagine/corticotropin-releasing factor receptor expressed in heart and skeletal muscle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1995, 92, 1108-1112.
53. Kostich, W.A.; Chen, A.; Sperle, K.; Largent, B.L. Molecular identification and analysis of a novel human corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor: the CRF2gamma receptor. Mol. Endocrinol., 1998, 12, 1077-1085.
54. Lovenberg, T.W.; Liaw, C.W.; Grigoriadis, D.E.; Clevenger, W.; Chalmers, D.T.; De Souza, E.B.; Oltersdorf, T. Cloning and characterization of a functionally distinct corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtype from rat brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1995, 92, 836-840.
55. Palchaudhuri, M.R.; Hauger, R.L.; Wille, S.; Fuchs, E.; Dautzenberg, F.M. Isolation and pharmacological characterization of two functional splice variants of corticotropin-releasing factor type 2 receptor from Tupaia belangeri. J. Neuroendocrinol., 1999, 11, 419-428.
56. Lovenberg, T.W.; Chalmers, D.T.; Liu, C.; De Souza, E.B. CRF2 alpha and CRF2 beta receptor mRNAs are differentially distributed between the rat central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Endocrinology, 1995, 136, 4139-4142.
57. De Michele, M.; Touzani, O.; Foster, A.C.; Fieschi, C.; Sette, G.; McCulloch, J. Corticotropin-releasing factor: effect on cerebral blood flow in physiologic and ischaemic conditions. Exp. Brain Res., 2005, 165, 375-382.
58. Hauger, R.L.; Risbrough, V.; Brauns, O.; Dautzenberg, F.M. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptor signaling in the central nervous system: new molecular targets. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets, 2006, 5, 453-479.
59. Dautzenberg, F.M.; Kilpatrick, G.J.; Hauger, R.L.; Moreau, J. Molecular biology of the CRH receptors-in the mood. Peptides, 2001, 22, 753-760.
60. Rivier, J.; Gulyas, J.; Kunitake, K.; DiGruccio, M.; Cantle, J.P.; Perrin, M.H.; Donaldson, C.; Vaughan, J.; Million, M.; Gourcerol, G.; Adelson, D.W.; Rivier, C.; Taché, Y.; Vale, W. Stressin1-A, a potent corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1 (CRF1)-selective peptide agonist. J. Med. Chem., 2007, 50, 1668-1674.
61. Kono, M.; Nagata, H.; Umemura, S.; Kawana, S.; Osamura, R.Y. In situ expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) genes in human skin. FASEB J., 2001, 15, 2297-2299.
62. Mastorakos, G.; Webster, E.L.; Friedman, T.C.; Chrousos, G.P. Immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone and its binding sites in the rat ovary. J. Clin. Invest., 1993, 92, 961-968.
63. Porcher, C.; Peinnequin, A.; Pellissier, S.; Meregnani, J.; Sinniger, V.; Canini, F.; Bonaz, B. Endogenous expression and in vitro study of CRF-related peptides and CRF receptors in the rat gastric antrum. Peptides, 2006, 27, 1464-1475.
64. Donaldson, C.J.; Sutton, S.W.; Perrin, M.H.; Corrigan, A.Z.; Lewis, K.A.; Rivier, J.E.; Vaughan, J.M.; Vale, W.W. Cloning and characterization of human urocortin. Endocrinology, 1996, 137, 2167-2170.
65. Vaughan, J.; Donaldson, C.; Bittencourt, J.; Perrin, M.H.; Lewis, K.; Sutton, S.; Chan, R.; Turnbull, A.V.; Lovejoy, D.; Rivier, C.;Rivier, J.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Vale, W. Urocortin, a mammalian neuropeptide related to fish urotensin I and to corticotropin-releasing factor. Nature, 1995, 378, 287-292.
66. Bittencourt, J.C.; Vaughan, J.; Arias, C.; Rissman, R.A.; Vale, W.W.; Sawchenko, P.E. Urocortin expression in rat brain: evidence against a pervasive relationship of urocortin-containing projections with targets bearing type 2 CRF receptors. J. Comp. Neurol., 1999, 415, 285-312.
67. Vasconcelos, L.A.; Donaldson, C.; Sita, L.V.; Casatti, C.A.; Lotfi, C.F.; Wang, L.; Cadinouche, M.Z.; Frigo, L.; Elias, C.F.; Lovejoy, D.A.; Bittencourt, J.C. Urocortin in the central nervous system of a primate (Cebus apella): sequencing, immunohistochemical, and hybridization histochemical characterization. J. Comp. Neurol., 2003, 463, 157-175.
68. Bamberger, C.M.; Wald, M.; Bamberger, A.-M.; Ergun, S.; Beil, F.U.; Schulte, H.M. Human lymphocytes produce urocortin, but not corticotropin releasing hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 1998, 83, 708-711.
69. Kageyama, K.; Bradbury, M.J.; Zhao, L.; Blount, A.L.; Vale, W.W. Urocortin messenger ribonucleic acid: tissue distribution in the rat and regulation in thymus by lipopolysaccharide and glucocorticoids. Endocrinology, 1999, 140, 5651-5658.
70. Lewis, K.; Perrin, M.H.; Blount, A.; Kunitake, K.; Donaldson, C.; Vaughan, J.; Reyes, T.M.; Gulyas, J.; Fischer, W.; Bilezikjian, L.; Rivier, J.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Vale, W.W. Identification of urocortin III, an additional member of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family with high affinity for the CRF2 receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98, 7570-7575.
71. Reyes, T.M.; Lewis, K.; Perrin, M.H.; Kunitake, K.S.; Vaughan, J.; Arias, C.A.; Hogenesch, J.B.; Gulyas, J.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.W.; Sawchenko, P.E. Urocortin II: a member of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) neuropeptide family that is selectively bound by type 2 CRF receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98, 2843-2848.
72. Yamauchi, N.; Otagiri.; Nemoto, T.; Sekino, A.; Oono, H.; Kato, I.; Yanaihara, C.; Shibasaki, T. Distribution of urocortin 2 in various tissues of the rat. J. Neuroendocrinol., 2005, 17, 656-663.
73. Hsu, S.Y.; Hsueh, A.J.W. Human stresscopin and stresscopin-related peptide are selective ligands for the type 2 corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Nat. Med., 2001, 7, 605-611.
74. Li, C.; Vaughan, J.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Vale, W.W. Urocortin III-immunoreactive projections in rat brain: partial overlap with sites of type 2 corticotrophin-releasing factor receptor expression. J. Neurosci., 2002, 22, 991-1001.
75. Li, C.; Chen, P.; Vaughan, J.; Blount, A.; Chen, A.; Jamieson, P.M.; Rivier, J.; Smith, M.S.; Vale, W. Urocortin III is expressed in pancreatic beta-cells and stimulates insulin and glucagon secretion. Endocrinology, 2003, 144, 3216-3224.
76. Hammack, S.E.; Pepin, J.L.; DesMarteau, J.S.; Watkins, L.R.; Maier, S.F. Low doses of corticotropin-releasing hormone injected into the dorsal raphe nucleus block the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress. Behav. Brain Res., 2003, 147, 55-64.
77. Tanaka, M.; Telegdy, G. Antidepressant-like effects of the CRF family peptides, urocortin 1, urocortin 2 and urocortin 3 in a modified forced swimming test in mice. Brain Res. Bull., 2008, 75, 509-512.
78. Valdez, G.R.; Zorrilla, E.P.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.W.; Koob, G.F. Locomotor suppressive and anxiolytic-like effects of urocortin 3, a highly selective type 2 corticotropin-releasing factor agonist. Brain Res., 2003, 980, 206-212.
79. Farrokhi, C.B.; Tovote, P.; Blanchard, R.J.; Blanchard, D.C.; Litvin, Y.; Spiess, J. Cortagine: behavioral and autonomic function of the selective CRF receptor subtype 1 agonist. CNS Drug Rev., 2007, 13, 423-443.
80. Tezval, H.; Jahn, O.; Todorovic, C.; Sasse, A.; Eckart, K.; Spiess, J. Cortagine, a specific agonist of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtype 1, is anxiogenic and antidepressive in the mouse model. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2004, 101, 9468-9473.
81. Potter, E.; Behan, D.P.; Fischer, W.H.; Linton, E.A.; Lowry, P.J.; Vale, W.W. Cloning and characterization of the cDNAs for human and rat corticotropin releasing factor-binding proteins. Nature, 1991, 349, 423-426.
82. Suda, T.; Iwashita, M.; Tozawa, F.; Ushiyama, T.; Tomori, N.; Sumitomo, T.; Nakagami, Y.; Demura, H.; Shizume, K. Characterization of corticotropin-releasing hormone binding protein in human plasma by chemical cross-linking and its binding during pregnancy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 1988, 67, 1278-1283.
83. Jahn, O.; Tezval, H.; van, Werven, L.; Eckart, K.; Spiess, J. Three-amino acid motifs of urocortin II and III determine their CRF receptor subtype selectivity. Neuropharmacology, 2004, 47, 233-242.
84. Kemp, C.F.; Woods, R.J.; Lowry, P.J. The corticotrophin-releasing factor-binding protein: an act of several parts. Peptides, 1998, 19, 1119-1128.
85. Claes, S.; Villafuerte, S.; Forsgren, T.; Sluijs, S.; Del-Favero, J.; Adolfsson, R.; Van Broeckhoven, C. The corticotropin-releasing hormone binding protein is associated with major depression in a population from Northern Sweden. Biol. Psychiatry, 2003, 54, 867-872.
86. Behan, D.P.; Heinrichs, S.C.; Troncoso, J.C.; Liu, X.J.; Kawas, C.H.; Ling, N.; De Souza, E.B. Displacement of corticotropin releasing factor from its binding protein as a possible treatment for Alzheimer's disease. Nature, 1995, 378, 284-287.
87. Eckart, K.; Jahn, O.; Radulovic, J.; Radulovic, M.; Blank, T.; Stiedl, O.; Brauns, O.; Tezval, H.; Zeyda, T.; Spiess, J. Pharmacology and biology of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptors. Recept. Channels, 2002, 8, 163-177.
88. Potter, E.; Behan, D.P.; Linton, E.A.; Lowry, P.J.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Vale, W.W. The central distribution of a corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-binding protein predicts multiple sites and modes of interaction with CRF. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1992, 89, 4192-4196.
89. Lowry, P.J.; Woods, R.J.; Baigent, S. Corticotropin releasing factor and its binding protein. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 1996, 54, 305-308.
90. Jahn, O.; Radulovic, J.; Stiedl, O.; Tezval, H.; Eckart, K.; Spiess, J. Corticotropin-releasing factor binding protein-a ligand trap? Mini Rev. Med. Chem., 2005, 5, 953-960.
91. Ungless, M.A.; Singh, V.; Crowder, T.L.; Yaka, R.; Ron, D.; Bonci, A. Corticotropin-releasing factor requires CRF binding protein to potentiate NMDA receptors via CRF receptor 2 in dopamine neurons. Neuron, 2003, 39, 401-407.
92. Wang B.; You, Z.B.; Rice, K.C.; Wise, R.A. Stress-induced relapse to cocaine seeking: roles for the CRF(2) receptor and CRF-binding protein in the ventral tegmental area of the rat. Psychopharmacology, 2007, 193, 283-294.
93. Eckart, K.; Jahn, O.; Radulovic, J.; Tezval, H.; van Werven, L.; Spiess, J. A single amino acid serves as an affinity switch between the receptor and the binding protein of corticotropin-releasing factor: implications for the design of agonists and antagonists. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98, 11142-11147.
94. Menzaghi, F.; Howard, R.L.; Heinrichs, S.C; Vale, W.; Rivier, J.; Koob, G.F. Characterization of a novel and potent corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1994, 269, 564-572.
95. Fisher, L.A. Corticotropin-releasing factor: endocrine and autonomic integration of responses to stress. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 1989, 10, 189-193.
96. Fisher, L.A.; Jessen, G.; Brown, M.R. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF): mechanism to elevate mean arterial pressure and heart rate. Regul. Pept., 1983, 5, 153-161.
97. Nijsen, M.J.; Croiset, G.; Stam, R.; Bruijnzeel, A.; Diamant, M.; de Wied, D.; Wiegant, V.M. The role of the CRH type 1 receptor in autonomic responses to corticotropin- releasing hormone in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2000, 22, 388-399.
98. Terui, K.; Higashiyama, A.; Horiba, N.; Furukawa, K.I.; Motomura, S.; Suda, T. Coronary vasodilation and positive inotropism by urocortin in the isolated rat heart. J. Endocrinol., 2001, 169, 177-183.
99. Gardiner, S.M.; March, J.E.; Kemp, P.A.; Bennett, T. A comparison between the cardiovascular actions of urocortin 1 and urocortin 2 (stresscopin-related peptide) in conscious rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2007, 321, 221-226.
100. Parkes, D.G.; Weisinger, R.S.; May, C.N. Cardiovascular actions of CRH and urocortin: an update. Peptides, 2001, 22(5), 821-827.
101. Stiedl, O.; Meyer, M.; Jahn, O.; Ogren, S.O.; Spiess, J. Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 and central heart rate regulation in mice during expression of conditioned fear. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2005, 312, 905-916.
102. Coşkun, T.; Bozkurt, A.; Alican, I.; Ozkutlu, U.; Kurtel, H.; Yegen, B.C. Pathways mediating CRF-induced inhibition of gastric emptying in rats. Regul. Pept., 1997, 69, 113-120.
103. Martinez, V.; Wang, L.; Rivier, J.; Grigoriadis, D.; Taché, Y. Central CRF, urocortins and stress increase colonic transit via CRF1 receptors while activation of CRF2 receptors delays gastric transit in mice. J. Physiol., 2004, 556, 221-234.
104. Stengel, A.; Taché, Y. Neuroendocrine Control of the Gut During Stress: Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Signaling Pathways in the Spotlight. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2009, 71, 219-239.
105. Martínez, V.; Wang, L.; Rivier, J.E.; Vale, W.; Taché, Y. Differential actions of peripheral corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), urocortin II, and urocortin III on gastric emptying and colonic transit in mice: role of CRF receptor subtypes 1 and 2. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2002, 301, 611-617.
106. Williams, C.L.; Peterson, J.M.; Villar, R.G.; Burks, T.F. Corticotropin-releasing factor directly mediates colonic responses to stress. Am. J. Physiol., 1987, 253, G582-G586.
107. Million, M.; Maillot, C.; Saunders, P.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.; Taché, Y. Human urocortin II, a new CRF-related peptide, displays selective CRF(2)-mediated action on gastric transit in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 2002, 282, G34-G40.
108. Nakade, Y.; Tsuchida, D.; Fukuda, H.; Iwa, M.; Pappas, T.N.; Takahashi, T. Restraint stress delays solid gastric emptying via a central CRF and peripheral sympathetic neuron in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 2005, 288, R427-R432.
109. Kalantaridou, S.N.; Makrigiannakis, A.; Zoumakis, E.; Chrousos, G.P. Reproductive functions of corticotropin-releasing hormone. Research and potential clinical utility of antalarmins (CRH receptor type 1 antagonists). Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 2004, 51, 269-274.
110. Correa, S.G.; Riera, C.M.; Spiess, J.; Bianco, I.D. Modulation of the inflammatory response by corticotropin-releasing factor. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 1997, 319, 85-90.
111. O'Kane, M.; Murphy, E.P.; Kirby, B. The role of corticotropin-releasing hormone in immune-mediated cutaneous inflammatory disease. Exp. Dermatol., 2006, 15, 143-153.
112. Butler, P.D.; Weiss, J.M.; Stout, J.C.; Nemeroff, C.B. Corticotropin-releasing factor produces fear-enhancing and behavioral activating effects following infusion into the locus coeruleus. J. Neurosci., 1990, 10, 176-183.
113. Deak, T.; Nguyen, K.T.; Ehrlich, A.L.; Watkins, L.R.; Spencer, R.L.; Maier, S.F.; Licinio, J.; Wong, M.L.; Chrousos, G.P.; Webster, E.; Gold, P.W. The impact of the nonpeptide corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist antalarmin on behavioral and endocrine responses to stress. Endocrinology, 1999, 140, 79-86.
114. Zorrilla, E.P.; Valdez, G.R.; Nozulak, J.; Koob, G.F.; Markou, A. Effects of antalarmin, a CRF type 1 receptor antagonist, on anxiety-like behavior and motor activation in the rat. Brain Res., 2002, 952,188-199.
115. Zorrilla, E.P.; Schulteis, G.; Ormsby, A.; Klaassen, A.; Ling, N.; McCarthy, J.R.; Koob GF, De Souza EB. Urocortin shares the memory modulating effects of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF): mediation by CRF1 receptors. Brain Res., 2002, 952, 200-210.
116. Ohmura, Y.; Yamaguchi, T.; Futami, Y.; Togashi, H.; Izumi, T.; Matsumoto, M.; Yoshida, T.; Yoshioka, M. Corticotropin releasing factor enhances attentional function as assessed by the five-choice serial reaction time task in rats. Behav. Brain Res., 2009, 198, 429-433.
117. Griebel, G.; Perrault, G.; Sanger, D.J. Characterization of the behavioral profile of the non-peptide CRF receptor antagonist CP-154,526 in anxiety models in rodents: comparison with diazepam and buspirone. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 1998, 138, 55-66.
118. Lelas, S.; Wong, H.; Li, Y.W.; Heman, K.L.; Ward, K.A.; Zeller, K.L.; Sieracki, K.K.; Polino, J.L.; Godonis, H.E.; Ren, S.X.; Yan, X.X.; Arneric, S.P.; Robertson, D.W.; Hartig, P.R.; Grossman, S.; Trainor, G.L.; Taub, R.A.; Zaczek, R.; Gilligan, P.J.; McElroy, J.F. Anxiolytic-like effects of the corticotropin-releasing factor1 (CRF1) antagonist DMP904 [4-(3-pentylamino)-2,7- dimethyl-8-(2-methyl-4-methoxyphenyl)-pyrazolo-[1,5-a]-pyrimidine] administered acutely or chronically at doses occupying central CRF1 receptors in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2004, 309, 293-302.
119. Bale, T.L.; Picetti, R.; Contarino, A.; Koob, G.F.; Vale, W.W.; Lee, K.F. Mice deficient for both corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (CRFR1) and CRFR2 have an impaired stress response and display sexually dichotomous anxiety-like behavior. J. Neurosci., 2002, 22, 193-199.
120. Gammie, S.C.; Stevenson, S.A. Intermale aggression in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 deficient mice. Behav. Brain Res., 2006, 171, 63-69.
121. Smith, G.W.; Aubry, J.M.; Dellu, F.; Contarino, A.; Bilezikjian, L.M.; Gold, L.H.; Chen, R.; Marchuk, Y.; Hauser, C.; Bentley, C.A.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Koob, G.F.; Vale, W.; Lee, K.F. Corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1-deficient mice display decreased anxiety, impaired stress response, and aberrant neuroendocrine development. Neuron, 1998, 20, 1093-1102.
122. Bale, T.L.; Contarino, A.; Smith, G.W.; Chan, R.; Gold, L.H.; Sawchenko, P.E.; Koob, G.F.; Vale, W.W.; Lee, K.F. Mice deficient for corticotropin- releasing hormone receptor-2 display anxiety-like behaviour and are hypersensitive to stress. Nat. Genet., 2000, 24(4), 410-414.
123. Bale, T.L.; Vale, W.W. Increased depression-like behaviors in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor-2-deficient mice: sexually dichotomous responses. J. Neurosci., 2003, 23, 5295-5301.
124. Contarino, A.; Dellu, F.; Koob, G.F.; Smith, G.W.; Lee, K.F.; Vale, W.; Gold, L.H. Reduced anxiety-like and cognitive performance in mice lacking the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1. Brain Res., 1999, 835, 1-9.
125. Heinrichs, S.C. Modulation of social learning in rats by brain corticotropin-releasing factor. Brain Res., 2003, 994, 107-114.
126. Diamant, M.; Croiset, G.; de Wied, D. The effect of corticotropin- releasing factor (CRF) on autonomic and behavioral responses during shock-prod burying test in rats. Peptides, 1992, 13, 1149-1158.
127. Forster, G.L.; Feng, N.; Watt, M.J.; Korzan, W.J.; Mouw, N.J.; Summers, C.H.; Renner, K.J. Corticotropin-releasing factor in the dorsal raphe elicits temporally distinct serotonergic responses in the limbic system in relation to fear behavior. Neuroscience, 2006, 141, 1047-1055.
128. Kagamiishi, Y.; Yamamoto, T.; Watanabe, S. Hippocampal serotonergic system is involved in anxiety-like behavior induced by corticotropin-releasing factor. Brain Res., 2003, 991, 212-221.
129. Inoue, T.; Li, X.B.; Abekawa, T.; Kitaichi, Y.; Izumi, T.; Nakagawa, S.; Koyama, T. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor reduces conditioned fear through its effect in the amygdala. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2004, 497, 311-316.
130. Li, X.; Inoue, T.; Abekawa, T.; Weng, S.; Nakagawa, S.; Izumi, T.; Koyama, T. 5-HT1A receptor agonist affects fear conditioning through stimulations of the postsynaptic 5-HT1A receptors in the hippocampus and amygdala. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2006, 532, 74-80.
131. Yoshioka, M.; Matsumoto, M.; Togashi, H.; Saito, H. Effects of conditioned fear stress on 5-HT release in the rat prefrontal cortex. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 1995, 51, 515-519.
132. Beaudin, C.L.; Burchuk, R. Clinical practice guidelines for treating depression in primary care. Manag. Care, 2004, 13, 17-24.
133. Weilburg, J.B. An overview of SSRI and SNRI therapies for depression. Manag. Care, 2004, 13, 25-33.
134. Forster, G.L.; Pringle, R.B.; Mouw, N.J.; Vuong, S.M.; Watt, M.J.; Burke, A.R.; Lowry, C.A.; Summers, C.H.; Renner, K.J. Corticotropin-releasing factor in the dorsal raphe nucleus increases medial prefrontal cortical serotonin via type 2 receptors and median raphe nucleus activity. Eur. J. Neurosci., 2008, 28, 299-310.
135. Smagin, G.N.; Zhou, J.; Harris, R.B.; Ryan. D.H. CRF receptor antagonist attenuates immobilization stress-induced norepinephrine release in the prefrontal cortex in rats. Brain Res. Bull., 1997, 42, 431-434.
136. Merali, Z.; McIntosh, J.; Kent, P.; Michaud, D.; Anisman, H. Aversive and appetitive events evoke the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone and bombesin-like peptides at the central nucleus of the amygdala. J. Neurosci., 1998, 18, 4758-4766.
137. Merali, Z.; McIntosh, J.; Anisman, H. Anticipatory cues differentially provoke in vivo peptidergic and monoaminergic release at the medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2004, 29, 1409-1418.
138. Pecina, S.; Schulkin, J.; Berridge, K.C. Nucleus accumbens corticotropin-releasing factor increases cue-triggered motivation for sucrose reward: paradoxical positive incentive effects in stress? BMC Biol., 2006, 4, 8.
139. Olive, M.F.; Mehmert, K.K.; Koenig, H.N.; Camarini, R.; Kim, J.A.; Nannini, M.A.; Ou, C.J.; Hodge, C.W. A role for corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) in ethanol consumption, sensitivity, and reward as revealed by CRF-deficient mice. Psychopharmacology, 2003, 165, 181-187.
140. Binneman, B.; Feltner, D.; Kolluri, S.; Shi, Y.; Qiu, R.; Stiger, T. A 6-week randomized, placebo-controlled trial of CP-316,311 (a selective CRH1 antagonist) in the treatment of major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2008, 165, 617-620.
141. Zobel, A.W.; Nickel, T.; Künzel, H.E.; Ackl, N.; Sonntag, A.; Ising, M.; Holsboer, F. Effects of the high-affinity corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 antagonist R121919 in major depression: the first 20 patients treated. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2000, 34, 171-181.
142. Sarnyai, Z.; Shaham, Y.; Heinrichs, S.C. The role of corticotropin- releasing factor in drug addiction. Pharmacol. Rev., 2001, 53, 209-243.
143. Alonso, R.; Griebel, G.; Pavone, G.; Stemmelin, J.; Le Fur, G.; Soubrié, P. Blockade of CRF(1) or V(1b) receptors reverses stress-induced suppression of neurogenesis in a mouse model of depression. Mol. Psychiatry, 2004, 9, 278-286.
144. Chen, Y.; Dubé, C.M.; Rice, C.J.; Baram, T.Z. Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by
145. Geuze, E.; Vermetten, E.; Bremner, J.D. MR-based in vivo hippocampal volumetrics: 2. Findings in neuropsychiatric disorders. Mol. Psychiatry, 2005, 10, 160-184.
146. Duman, R.S.; Heninger, G.R.; Nestler, E.J. A molecular and cellular theory of depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1997, 54, 597-606.
147. Lezoualc'h, F.; Engert, S.; Berning, B.; Behl, C. Corticotropin-releasing hormone-mediated neuroprotection against oxidative stress is associated with the increased release of non-amyloidogenic amyloid beta precursor protein and with the suppression of nuclear factor-kappaB. Mol. Endocrinol., 2000, 14, 147-159.
148. Pedersen, W.A.; McCullers, D.; Culmsee, C.; Haughey, N.J.; Herman, J.P.; Mattson, M.P. Corticotropin-releasing hormone protects neurons against insults relevant to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Dis., 2001, 8, 492-503.
149. Bruijnzeel, A.W.; Prado, M.; Isaac, S. Corticotropin-releasing factor-1 receptor activation mediates nicotine withdrawal-induced deficit in brain reward function and stress-induced relapse. Biol. Psychiatry, 2009, 66, 110-117.
150. Lu, L.; Liu, D.; Ceng, X. Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 mediates stress-induced relapse to cocaine-conditioned place preference in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2001, 415, 203-208.
151. Chu, K.; Koob, G.F.; Cole, M.; Zorrilla, E.P.; Roberts, A.J. Dependence-induced increases in ethanol self-administration in mice are blocked by the CRF1 receptor antagonist antalarmin and by CRF1 receptor knockout. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 2007, 86, 813-821.
152. Przegaliński, E.; Filip, M.; Frankowska, M.; Zaniewska, M.; Papla, I. Effects of CP 154,526, a CRF1 receptor antagonist, on behavioral responses to cocaine in rats. Neuropeptides, 2005, 39, 525-533.
153. Aursnes, I.; Gjertsen, M.K. Common adverse events associated with an SSRI: meta-analysis of early paroxetine data. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf., 2008, 17, 707-713.
154. Clayton, A.H.; Pradko, J.F.; Croft, H.A.; Montano, C.B.; Leadbetter, R.A.; Bolden-Watson, C.; Bass, K.I.; Donahue, R.M.; Jamerson, B.D.; Metz, A. Prevalence of sexual dysfunction among newer antidepressants. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2002, 63, 357-366.
155. Dautzenberg, F.M.; Higelin, J.; Wille, S.; Brauns, O. Molecular cloning and functional expression of the mouse CRF2(a) receptor splice variant. Regul. Pept., 2004, 121, 89-97.
156. Sutton, S.W.; Behan, D.P.; Lahrichi, S.L.; Kaiser, R.; Corrigan, A.; Lowry, P.; Potter, E.; Perrin, M.H.; Rivier, J.; Vale, W.W. Ligand requirements of the human corticotropin-releasing factor-binding protein. Endocrinology, 1995, 136, 1097-1102.
157. Cortright, D.N.; Nicoletti, A.; Seasholtz, A.F. Molecular and biochemical characterization of the mouse brain corticotropin-releasing hormone-binding protein. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 1995, 111, 147-157.
158. Brauns, O.; Brauns, S.; Zimmermann, B.; Jahn, O.; Spiess, J. Differential responsiveness of CRF receptor subtypes to N-terminal truncation of peptidic ligands. Peptides, 2002, 23, 881-888.