A question of game or cattle? the fight against trypanosomiasis in southern rhodesia (1898-1914)

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 737-753

  Gargallo, Eduard ^a  

^a Centre d'Estudis Africans   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CATTLE; CONSERVATION PLANNING; DOCUMENTARY SOURCE; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; HUNTING; LIVESTOCK FARMING; NATURE CONSERVATION; PARASITE INFESTATION; PEST OUTBREAK; PLANNING HISTORY; RANCHING; TRYPANOSOMIASIS; TSETSE FLY;

ZIMBABWE;

ANIMALIA; BOS; GLOSSINA (GENUS);

EID: 75649152511     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: 14653893     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057070903101946     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. For the causes of the revolt see T. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7: A Study in African Resistance (London, Heinemann, 1967), especially Chapters Two and Three.
2. For the origins and characteristics of rinderpest see C. Van Onselen, 'Reactions to Rinderpest in Southern Africa, 1896-97', Journal of African History, 13, 3 (1972), pp. 473-88.
3. P. Phoofolo, 'Epidemics and Revolutions: The Rinderpest Epidemic in Late Nineteenth-Century Southern Africa', Past and Present, 138 (February 1993), pp. 113-44 and 124-7.
4. P.F. Cranefield, Science and Empire: East Coast Fever in Rhodesia and the Transvaal (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 11.
5. H. Weinmann, Agriculture Research and Development in Southern Rhodesia, Under the Rule of the British South Africa Company, 1890-1923 (Department of Agriculture, Occasional Paper, 4, University of Rhodesia, 1972), pp. 105-6.
6. M.G.B. Rooney, 'European Agriculture in the History of Rhodesia, 1890-1907' (MA thesis, University of South Africa, 1968), pp. 46-7.
7. Weinmann, Agriculture Research and Development, pp. 105-106.
8. Official Yearbook of the Colony of Southern Rhodesia, 1 (1924), p. 160.
9. On immunisation see van Onselen, 'Reactions to Rinderpest', p. 483.
10. Official Yearbook, p. 160
11. Cranefield, Science and Empire, pp. 129-30.
12. The BSAC Directors Report and Accounts, 1897-98, p. 18.
13. Government Notice No. 67 of 1898, issued on 12 May 1898.
14. The classical account of trypanosomiasis is J. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases in African Ecology (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971). On the description of the disease, see pp. 2-3.
15. On the causes of fly presence and possible immunity, see Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases, pp. 6-10 and 88-90.
16. in J. Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis Control in African History: An Evaded Issue?', Journal of African History, 31 (1990), pp. 59-80. Both authors defend the existence of acquired immunity.
17. For an analysis of the historical evolution of tsetse fly in Rhodesia see Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases, pp. 65-71, 288, 293, 295 and 337-43.
18. The BSAC Directors Report and Accounts, 1897-98, p. 18.
19. National Archives of Zimbabwe (hereafter NAZ) T 2/3/14, 'Some Notes upon Rhodesian Climate and Other Matters Communicated by the Rhodesia Scientific Association to the BSAC', dated February 1903, and attached to a letter from the Civil Commissioner, Bulawayo, to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, 21 March 1903, p. 60.
20. The most exhaustive study of African Coast Fever in Rhodesia is Cranefield, Science and Empire. ACF is a cattle disease transmitted by the brown tick. It was introduced into Rhodesia in 1901 through cattle imported from East Africa. Serious outbreaks occurred throughout the 1900s and 1910s.
21. NAZ A 3/25/3 Vol.1, Report from the Surveyor General to the Secretary in Chief, 10 November 1899.
22. Debates of the Legislative Council. Second Session. First Council. 1900, p. 53.
23. For an overview of the situation in Zululand see J. Guy, 'The Destruction and Reconstruction of Zulu Society', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa: African Class Formation, Culture and Consciousness, 1970-1930 (London, Longman, 1982), pp. 167-94.
24. For the contemporary research on trypanosomiasis see Cranefield, Science and Empire, p. 129
25. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases, pp. 73 and 239-40.
26. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, CNC (Chief Native Commissioner), Mashonaland, to Chief Secretary, 12 July 1905.
27. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Minute by Sinclair on the letter quoted above, dated 21 July 1905.
28. Townsend to Treasurer, 31 July 1905.
29. For an example of African hunters collaborating with the Administration in this sort of campaign in Matabeleland see J. Alexander, J. McGregor and T. Ranger, Violence and Memory: One Hundred Years in the 'Dark Forests' of Matabeleland (Oxford, James Currey, 2000), pp. 40-2.
30. 'Report of the Department of Agriculture, for the Year Ended 31st March 1906', p. 3.
31. Debates of the Legislative Council. Second Session. Third Council, 1906, pp. 11-12.
32. NAZ Historical Manuscripts BE 11/7/1, 'Reminiscences' by Ernest Bevan. pp. 192-4.
33. Bevan's autobiography is not dated, but through different references he made throughout the text it is possible to guess that it was written in 1954.
34. For an overview of Rhodesian game policies see T. Masona, 'Colonial Game Policy: A Study of the Origin and Administration of Game Policy in Southern Rhodesia, 1890-1945' (MA thesis, University of Zimbabwe, 1987)
35. and R. Mutwira, 'Southern Rhodesian Wildlife Policy (1890-1953): A Question of Condoning Game Slaughter?', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (January, 1989), pp. 250-62.
36. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Extract of the report of the Licence Inspector attached to a letter from the Acting Chief Inspector, Bulawayo, to the Secretary of the Law Department, 17 October 1907.
37. Minute by Newton to the General Attorney, 30 October 1907.
38. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Sinclair to Townsend, 4 November 1907.
39. Townsend to Treasurer, 5 November 1907.
40. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Newton to Milton, 7 November 1907; Minute by Milton to Newton, undated.
41. For Buxton's activities, see J. Carruthers, 'Lessons from South Africa: War and Wildlife Protection in the Southern Sudan, 1917-1921', Environment and History, 3, 3 (October 1997), pp. 307-8.
42. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Buxton to Brodie, BSAC's London Office, 10 December 1908; Brodie to Buxton, undated; Newton to Buxton, 24 January 1909.
43. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, R.S. Antrobus to the Secretary, BSAC, 22 June 1909, attaching an 'extract of minutes of interview' with the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire, 26 February 1909.
44. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Nobbs to Newton, 12 August 1909; Newton to Brodie, BSAC's London Office, 9 October 1909.
45. 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year ended 31st December, 1909', p. 15.
46. 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year ended 31st December, 1910', p. 18.
47. 'Report by the Government Veterinary Bacteriologist', in the 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year ended 31st December, 1911', p. 28.
48. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Jack to Nobbs, 17 August 1910.
49. Weinmann, Agriculture Research and Development, p. 125.
50. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Jack to Nobbs, 21 December 1910.
51. 'Report of the Government Entomologist', in 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year ended 31st December, 1911', pp. 49-50.
52. NAZ L 2/2/181, Wise to Civil Commissioner, Hartley, 7 May 1909.
53. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases, p. 358.
54. L.E. Bevan, 'The Tsetse Fly', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 6, 6 (August 1909), p. 661.
55. L.E. Bevan, 'Interim Report on the Animal Trypanosomiases of Southern Rhodesia', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 7, 3 (February 1910), p. 1,029.
56. 'Report of the Chief Veterinary Surgeon for the Year Ended 31st December, 1909', in the 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year Ended 31st December, 1909', pp. 30-1.
57. NAZ G 1/3/2/24, Lord Selborne to Milton, 13 March 1909; Nobbs to Newton, 28 April 1909; Newton to Selborne, 4 May 1909; cable from the BSAC's London Office to the Administrator, 22 May 1909; Newton to Selborne, 10 June 1909.
58. NAZ G 1/3/2/24, Selborne to Newton, 1 July 1909.
59. Newton to Selborne, 19 July 1909.
60. letter from Selborne to the Governments of Transvaal, Cape Colony, Natal and Orange River Colony, 4 August 1909.
61. Telegram from Selborne to the Administrator, 2 September 1909.
62. Nobbs to PVO (Principal Veterinary Officer), Transvaal, October 1909.
63. PVO Transvaal to Nobbs, 27 October 1909.
64. NAZ G 1/3/2/24, 'Report of the Preliminary Survey of Southern Rhodesia for the Pan South African Trypanosomiasis Commission', by C.W. Howard, Chief of Entomological Section, Government of Moçambique, December 1909.
65. NAZ G 1/3/2/24, Jack to Nobbs, 26 January 1910.
66. Sinclair to Nobbs, 3 February 1910; Newton to Milton, 21 April 1910.
67. NAZ G 1/3/2/24, 'Intercolonial Trypanosomiasis Expedition: Interim Report on the Investigation Conducted in the Territory of the Companhia de Moçambique, Portuguese East Africa. May-June, 1910'.
68. 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year ended 31st December, 1910', pp. 23-24.
69. L.E. Bevan, 'Interim Report on the Animal Trypanosomiases of Southern Rhodesia', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 7, 3 (February 1910), pp. 1,030-32.
70. Report of the Chief Veterinary Surgeon' and 'Report of Veterinary Bacteriologist', in 'Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year 1912', pp. 27 and 30-32 respectively.
71. 'Report of the Veterinary Bacteriologist', in 'Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year 1913', pp. 24-25.
72. 'Report of the Veterinary Bacteriologist', in Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year 1914, pp. 13-14.
73. NAZ G 1/3/2/5, T.B. Hulley, Umtali, to Dr. Jameson, 13 January 1914.
74. Jack to Nobbs, 23 January 1914; Bevan to Sinclair, 26 January 1914.
75. Jack to Nobbs, 18 May 1914.
76. R.W. Jack, 'Illustrations of Natural Forest in Relation to Tsetse Fly (Glossina Morsitans)', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 11, 4 (April 1914), pp. 568-76.
77. 'Report of the Chief Veterinary Surgeon for the Year ended 31st December, 1909', in 'Report of the Director of Agriculture, for the Year ended 31st December, 1909', pp. 27-8.
78. H.G. Mundy, 'Farms and Farming in Rhodesia: The Hartley District', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 9, 6 (August 1912), p. 821.
79. 'Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year, 1912', p. 16.
80. NAZ A 3/2/5/1, Manager, Estates Office, to Director of Agriculture, 9 April 1910.
81. Milton to Newton, 26 April 1910.
82. Jack to Nobbs, 14 June 1910.
83. For the different outbreaks see Alexander, McGregor and Ranger, Violence and Memory, pp. 33-4.
84. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases, pp. 358-61.
85. B. Kosmin, 'The Inyoka Tobacco Industry of the Shangwe People: The Displacement of a Pre-Colonial Economy in Southern Rhodesia, 1898-1938', in R. Palmer and N. Parsons (eds), The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (London, Heinemann, 1977), pp. 280-82.
86. 'Report of the Chief Veterinary Surgeon' and 'Report of the Veterinary Bacteriologist', in 'Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year 1914', pp. 9, 13.
87. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Report from Jack to Nobbs on his journey to Lomagundi in August and September 1914, dated 9 September 1914.
88. R.W. Jack, 'Illustrations of Natural Forest in Relation to Tsetse Fly (Glossina Morsitans)', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 11, 4 (April 1914), p. 576.
89. Debates of the Legislative Council. Second Session. Fourth Council, 1909, p. 91.
90. J.M. Mackenzie, 'Chivalry, Social Darwinism and Ritualised Killing: The Hunting Ethos in Central Africa up to 1914', in D. Anderson and R. Grove (eds), Conservation in Africa, People, Policies and Practice (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 41-61.
91. P.F. Hone, Southern Rhodesia (London, George Bell & Sons, 1909), pp. 321-2.
92. Mutwira, 'Southern Rhodesian Wildlife Policy', p. 254.
93. H.F. Varian, Some African Milestones (Bulawayo, Books of Rhodesia, 1973), p. 68.
94. V.E.M. Machingaidze, 'The Development of Settler Capitalist Agriculture in Southern Rhodesia with Particular Reference to the Role of the State, 1908-1939' (PhD. thesis, University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies, 1980), pp. 306-7.
95. NAZ G 1/1/2, Resolution of the Meeting of the Gazaland Farmers' Association, 4 June 1908, enclosed in a letter from the Secretary, Department of the Administrator to Townsend, 23 June 1908.
96. For a description of settlers' complaints for damages done to their properties caused by wild animals, which received a negative response from the Administration, see E. Gargallo, 'El Departament d'Agricultura a Zimbabwe (1897-1914): Febleses, Conflictes i Contradiccions en la Construcció de l'Estat Colonial' (PhD. thesis, Universitat de Barcelona, 2006), pp. 468-70.
97. F.C. Selous, 'Big Game in South Africa and its Relation to the Tse-Tse Fly', Journal of the African Society, 8, 30 (January 1909), pp. 121-29.
98. For a short biography of Coryndon see P. Duignan, 'Sir Robert Coryndon (1870-1925)', in L.H. Gann and P. Duignan (eds), African Proconsuls: European Governors in Africa (New York, The Free Press, 1978), pp. 313-52.
99. For the situation in Zululand at that time see S. Brooks, '"Ropes of Sand": Soldier-Settlers and Nagana in Zululand', in A. Jeeves and J. Crush (eds), White Farms, Black Labor: The State and Agrarian Change in Southern Africa, 1910-1950 (Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, 1997), pp. 243-64.
100. NAZ A 3/2/2, Coryndon to Milton, 23 January 1911.
101. For Stevenson-Hamilton's opinions and career see Carruthers, 'Lessons from South Africa', pp. 299-321.
102. J. Carruthers, 'Nationhood and National Parks: Comparative Examples from the Post-Imperial Experience', in T. Griffiths and L. Robin (eds), Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies (Edinburgh, Keele University Press, 1997), pp. 125-38.
103. NAZ A 3/2/2, 'Memorandum' by Stevenson-Hamilton attached to the letter from Coryndon to Milton quoted above. (Emphasis in the original.)
104. NAZ A 3/2/2, Fleming to Secretary, Department of the Administrator, 6 February 1911.
105. Office of the Administrator to Coryndon, 4 March 1911.
106. NAZ G 1/3/2/8, Jack to Nobbs, 26 May 1913.
107. Nobbs to Jack, 30 July 1913; Jack to Nobbs, 31 July 1913.
108. Nobbs to Fleming, 14 August 1913.
109. NAZ G 1/3/2/1, Government Notice No. 321 of 1913, 30 October 1913.
110. 'Editorial', Rhodesian Agricultural Journal, 11, 1 (October 1913), p. 11.
111. 'Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year 1913', pp. 6-7.
112. NAZ V 1/10/9/1, Gray to Chief Veterinary Surgeon, 1 September 1914.
113. Minute from Bevan to Acting Chief Veterinary Surgeon, 8 September 1914.
114. Bevan, 'Reminiscences', pp. 206-207.
115. Jack's studies in the 1920s are summarised in J. McCracken, 'Colonialism, Capitalism and the Ecological Crisis in Malawi: A Reassessment', in Anderson and Grove, Conservation in Africa, pp. 63-77.
116. 'Report of the Director of Agriculture for the Year 1914', p. 4.
117. Masona, 'Colonial Game Policy', pp. 59-60.
118. Official Yearbook of the Colony of Southern Rhodesia, No. 1 (1924), p. 149.
119. For the Federal period shootings in Rhodesia see Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases, pp. 319-25.
120. For Nobbs's views, see NAZ G 1/1/1/1, 'Memorandum on the Organization of the Department of Agriculture and the Veterinary Department', 23 September 1916, p. 30.
121. for his opinion of South African farmers see K. Brown, 'The Conservation and Utilisation of the Natural World: Silviculture in the Cape Colony, c.1902-1910', Environment and History, 7, 4 (November 2001), pp. 427-47.
122. For the evolution of relations between officials and settlers during the different outbreaks of ACF see Cranefield, Science and Empire, and Chapters 13, 16 and 24 of Gargallo, 'El Departament d'Agricultura'.
123. On the relationship between tsetse, game and vegetation, see Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases.
124. Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis Control'.
125. and R. Waller, 'Tsetse Fly in Narok, Kenya', Journal of African History, 131 (1990), pp. 81-101.
126. K. Brown, 'Tropical Medicine and Animal Diseases: Onderstepoort and the Development of Veterinary Science in South Africa, 1908-1950', Journal of Southern African Studies, 31, 3 (September 2005), pp. 513-29.
127. W. Beinart 'Vets, Viruses and Environmentalism at the Cape', in Griffiths and Robin, Ecology and Empire, pp. 87-101.
128. Brooks, '"Ropes of Sand"'.
129. On the different effects of colonial conservation policies, see W. Beinart, 'Empire, Hunting and Ecological Change in Southern and Central Africa', Past and Present, 12 (August, 1990), pp. 162-86.
130. McCracken, 'Colonialism, Capitalism and the Ecological Crisis in Malawi'.
131. Waller, 'Tsetse Fly in Narok'.
132. nd edn)
133. several contributions in G. Maddox, J. Giblin and I.N. Kimambo (eds), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanganyika (London, James Currey, 1996).