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Volumn 62, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 523-564

An empirical analysis of section 1983 qualified immunity actions and implications of Pearson v. Callahan

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EID: 75649104624     PISSN: 00389765     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (16)

References (125)
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    • 129 S. Ct. 808 (2009).
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    • 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (2006).
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    • 533 U.S. 194 (2001).
  • 4
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    • Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Fed. Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388 (1971). Bivens actions for constitutional violations are equivalent to § 1983 suits, except they are brought against federal officials rather than state or local actors.
  • 5
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    • note
    • Saucier, 533 U.S. at 202.
  • 6
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    • note
    • See infra Part III.A.
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    • 500 U.S. 226 (1991).
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    • 533 U.S. at 201.
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    • note
    • Thomas Healy, The Rise of Unnecessary Constitutional Rulings, 83 N.C. L. REV. 847, 930 (2005) (examining qualified immunity actions in two years following Saucier as part of a broader point about remedial deterrence and its relationship to qualified immunity).
    • (2005) The Rise of Unnecessary Constitutional Rulings , vol.847 , pp. 930
    • Healy, T.1
  • 10
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    • note
    • Thomas Healy, The Rise of Unnecessary Constitutional Rulings, 83 N.C. L. REV. 847, 930 (2005) (examining qualified immunity actions in two years following Saucier as part of a broader point about remedial deterrence and its relationship to qualified immunity). at 930, 937 n.431.
    • (2005) The Rise of Unnecessary Constitutional Rulings , vol.847 , pp. 930
    • Healy, T.1
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    • 386 U.S. 547, 555-57 (1967).
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    • 457 U.S. 800, 807 (1982).
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    • note
    • 457 U.S. 800, 807 (1982).
  • 18
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    • note
    • 457 U.S. 800, 807 (1982). (quoting Butz v. Economou, 438 U.S. 478, 506 (1978)).
  • 19
    • 75649143775 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • To invoke qualified immunity, a government official first must establish that she was acting within the scope of her discretionary authority. The burden then shifts to the plaintiff to overcome the defense of qualified immunity. See Bates v. Harvey, 518 F.3d 1233, 1242 (11th Cir. 2008).
  • 20
    • 75649113932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Harlow, 457 U.S. at 818. Before Harlow, a government official needed to demonstrate a subjective element-the lack of malicious intent-in order to be granted qualified immunity. See, e.g., Pierson, 386 U.S. at 557.
  • 21
    • 75649150507 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001).
  • 22
    • 75649144127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Hughes, Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001). note 11, at 407; Leong, supra note 11, at 670.
  • 23
    • 75649106933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 500 U.S. 226 (1991).
  • 24
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    • note
    • Hughes, 500 U.S. 226 (1991). note 11, at 408-12;
  • 25
    • 75649137754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong, Hughes, 500 U.S. 226 (1991) note 11, at 673-74. For discussion, see infra Part IV.A-B.
  • 26
    • 75649143397 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Hughes, Hughes, 500 U.S. 226 (1991) note 11, at 407 n.39 ("In analyzing qualified immunity issues, this circuit normally requires a two step process: (1) "[t]he initial determination is whether the claim itself is viable, whether the actions of the plaintiff are constitutionally protected[]' and (2) if so, the next step is an evaluation of whether the "constitutional right asserted was "clearly established" at the time of [the public official's] conduct so that a reasonable official would have understood that his conduct violated that right.'" (quoting Thompson v. City of Starkville, 901 F.2d 456, 468 n.12 (5th Cir. 1990)) (alteration in original)).
  • 27
    • 75649141699 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See infra Part I.B.
  • 28
    • 75649102574 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Molinelli v. Tucker, 901 F.2d 13 (2d Cir. 1990); Williams v. Smith, 781
  • 29
    • 75649110168 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • F.2d 319 (2d Cir. 1986).
  • 30
    • 75649087084 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 500 U.S. at 232-33.
  • 31
    • 75649129165 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 500 U.S. at 232-33. at 232.
  • 32
    • 75649119748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Siegert v. Gilley, 895 F.2d 797, 803 (D.C. Cir. 1990).
  • 33
    • 75649130866 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 500 U.S. at 232.
  • 34
    • 75649096100 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 500 U.S. at 232.
  • 35
    • 75649140987 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Hughes, 500 U.S. at 232. note 11, at 408; Leong, supra note 11, at 670.
  • 36
    • 75649087474 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 129 S. Ct. 808, 816 (2009).
  • 37
    • 75649100966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Hughes, 129 S. Ct. 808, 816 (2009). note 11, at 408-12;
  • 38
    • 75649103665 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong, See, e.g., Hughes, 129 S. Ct. 808, 816 (2009). note 11, at 670.
  • 39
    • 75649116541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Hughes, 129 S. Ct. 808, 816 (2009). note 11, at 408.
  • 40
    • 75649109780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Healy, Hughes, 129 S. Ct. 808, 816 (2009). note 9, at 879. Healy cites Powers v. CSX Transportation, Inc., 105 F. Supp. 2d 1295 (S.D. Ala. 2000), as an example of a case supporting this argument. Healy, supra note 9, at 879 n.162 (""[T]he Court concludes that it is appropriate to... address first whether the constitutional and statutory rights asserted by the plaintiff were clearly established....'" (quoting Powers, 105 F. Supp. 2d at 1308) (alteration in original)); see also Shepherd v. Sanchez, No. 96 Civ. 9012(LAP), 2000 WL 1010829, at *4-*5 (S.D.N.Y. July 21, 2000); Does v. Covington County Sch. Bd. of Educ., 930 F. Supp. 554, 576 (M.D. Ala. 1996); Bapat v. Conn. Dep't of Health Servs., 815 F. Supp. 525, 535 (D. Conn. 1992).
  • 41
    • 75649118291 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Leong, Hughes, 129 S. Ct. 808, 816 (2009). note 11, at 674 (citing McCall v. Williams, 59 F. Supp. 2d 556 (D.S.C. 1999); Cline v. Binder, 187 F.3d 628 (4th Cir. 1999) (unpublished table decision)); infra Part IV.
  • 42
    • 75649152176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 523 U.S. 833 (1998).
  • 43
    • 75649131591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 523 U.S. 833 (1998). at 842 n.5.
  • 44
    • 75649129415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 526 U.S. 286 (1999).
  • 45
    • 75649153093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 526 U.S. 603 (1999).
  • 46
    • 75649097908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 526 U.S. 603 (1999). at 609 (quoting Gabbert, 526 U.S. at 290).
  • 47
    • 75649126994 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Hughes, 526 U.S. 603 (1999). at 609 (quoting Gabbert, 526 U.S. at 290). note 11, at 412-13.
  • 48
    • 75649128421 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong, Hughes, 526 U.S. 603 (1999). at 609 (quoting Gabbert, 526 U.S. at 290). note 11, at 670.
  • 49
    • 75649151786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001).
  • 50
    • 75649107331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001). at 201.
  • 51
    • 75649121561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001). at 201.
  • 52
    • 75649120845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001). at 201.
  • 53
    • 75649103287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001). at 201.
  • 54
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    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200 (2001). at 201.
  • 55
    • 75649086240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U.S. 833, 841 n.5 (1998).
  • 56
    • 75649139244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U.S. 833, 841 n.5 (1998).
  • 57
    • 75649151281 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier, 533 U.S. at 201.
  • 58
    • 75649101867 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Garcia ex rel. Garcia v. Miera, 817 F.2d 650, 656-57 n.8 (10th Cir. 1987).
  • 60
    • 70349470023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • see also John M.M. Greabe, Mirabile Dictum!: The Case for "Unnecessary" Constitutional Rulings in Civil Rights Damages Actions, 74 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 403, 410 (1999) ("The requirement that the allegedly violated right be clearly established at the time of the action in question tends, if not to "freeze' constitutional law, then at least to retard its growth through civil rights damages actions. The corpus of constitutional law grows only when courts address novel constitutional questions, yet a novel claim, by definition, seeks to establish a right that is not already "clearly established.'" (citation omitted)).
    • (1999) Mirabile Dictum!: The Case For "unnecessary" Constitutional Rulings In Civil Rights Damages Actions , vol.74 , Issue.403 , pp. 410
    • Greabe, J.M.M.1
  • 62
    • 75649115456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • see also Wyatt v. Cole, 504 U.S. 158, 167 (1992) (noting that qualified immunity is meant to strike a balance "between compensating those who have been injured by official conduct and protecting government's ability to perform its traditional functions").
  • 63
    • 0346155183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For further discussion of this potential "remedial deterrence" phenomenon in § 1983 actions, see Daryl J. Levinson, Rights Essentialism and Remedial Equilibration, 99 COLUM. L. REV. 857, 889-99 (1999).
    • (1999) Rights Essentialism and Remedial Equilibration , vol.99 , pp. 889-99
    • Levinson, D.J.1
  • 64
    • 0346155183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For further discussion of this potential "remedial deterrence" phenomenon in § 1983 actions, see Daryl J. Levinson, Rights Essentialism and Remedial Equilibration, 99 COLUM. L. REV. 857, 889-99 (1999).
    • (1999) Rights Essentialism and Remedial Equilibration , vol.99 , pp. 889-99
    • Levinson, D.J.1
  • 65
    • 75649089825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201 (2001) (alteration in original).
  • 66
    • 75649146718 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See infra Part III.
  • 67
    • 75649101349 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 543 U.S. 194 (2004).
  • 68
    • 75649138843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 543 U.S. 194 (2004). at 198.
  • 69
    • 75649120844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 543 U.S. 194 (2004). at 198 n.3.
  • 70
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    • note
    • 543 U.S. 194 (2004). at 198 n.3.
  • 71
    • 75649150506 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 550 U.S. 372 (2007).
  • 72
    • 75649099848 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 550 U.S. 372 (2007). at 377 n.4.
  • 73
    • 75649083551 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pearson v. Callahan, 128 S. Ct. 1702, 1702-03 (2008) (mem.) (granting certiorari).
  • 74
    • 75649108644 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pearson v. Callahan, 129 S. Ct. 808, 818 (2009).
  • 75
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    • note
    • Pearson v. Callahan, 129 S. Ct. 808, 818 (2009). at 821.
  • 76
    • 75649144128 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It should be noted that Justice Kennedy initially resisted sequencing, but then wrote the majority opinion in Saucier requiring mandatory sequencing. Compare Siegert v. Gilley, 500 U.S. 226, 235 (1991) (Kennedy, J., concurring) ("[I]t seems to reverse the usual ordering of issues to tell the trial and appellate courts that they should resolve the constitutional question first."), with Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201 (2001) ("The law might be deprived of [an] explanation were a court simply to skip ahead to the question whether the law clearly established that the officer's conduct was unlawful in the circumstances of the case.").
  • 77
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    • note
    • See, e.g., Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393, 432 (2007) (Breyer, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part) (urging the Court to "end the failed Saucier experiment now"); Scott, 550 U.S. at 387 (Breyer, J., concurring); Brosseau v. Haugen, 543 U.S. 194, 201-02 (2004) (Breyer, J., concurring joined by Scalia & Ginsburg, JJ.) (arguing for reconsideration of Saucier's "rigid "order of battle'" because it "requires courts unnecessarily to decide difficult constitutional questions when there is available an easier basis for the decision (e.g., qualified immunity) that will satisfactorily resolve the case before the court"); Bunting v. Mellen, 541 U.S. 1019 (2004) (Stevens, J., respecting denial of certiorari joined by Ginsburg & Breyer, JJ.) (taking issue with the "unwise judge-made rule under which courts must decide whether the plaintiff has alleged a constitutional violation before addressing the question whether the defendant state actor is entitled to qualified immunity"); id. at 1025 (Scalia, J., dissenting from denial of certiorari joined by Rehnquist, C.J.) ("We should either make clear that constitutional determinations are not insulated from our review... or else drop any pretense at requiring the ordering in every case."); Siegert, 500 U.S. at 235 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment) ("If it is plain that a plaintiff's required malice allegations are insufficient but there is some doubt as to the constitutional right asserted, it seems to reverse the usual ordering of issues to tell the trial and appellate courts that they should resolve the constitutional question first.").
  • 78
    • 75649139958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Lyons v. City of Xenia, 417 F.3d 565, 580-84 (6th Cir. 2005) (Sutton, J., concurring).
  • 79
    • 75649148287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Hatfield-Bermudez v. Aldanondo-Rivera, 496 F.3d 51, 59-60 (1st Cir. 2007); Cherrington v. Skeeter, 344 F.3d 631, 640 (6th Cir. 2003); Koch v. Town of Brattleboro, 287 F.3d 162, 166 (2d Cir. 2002); Pearson v. Ramos, 237 F.3d 881, 884 (7th Cir. 2001); Powers v. CSX Transp., Inc., 105 F. Supp. 2d 1295, 1307-08 (S.D. Ala. 2000).
  • 80
    • 75649101348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Scott, 550 U.S. at 387-88 (Breyer, J., concurring) (quoting Spector Motor Serv., Inc. v. McLaughlin, 323 U.S. 101, 105 (1944)) (alteration in original).
  • 81
    • 75649110169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pearson v. Callahan, 129 S. Ct. 808, 818-19 (2009).
  • 82
    • 75649150827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pearson v. Callahan, 129 S. Ct. 808, 818-19 (2009). at 819. The difficulty arises because Fourth Amendment violations are routinely presented in terms of "unreasonable" searches and seizures. Similarly, in cases involving the Fourth Amendment, the second prong of the Saucier qualified immunity inquiry requires a court to determine whether the defendant officer's behavior exhibited "objective legal reasonableness." Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 819 (1982). In other words, a court must determine whether, in light of the clearly-established law at the time, an objectively reasonable officer could have concluded it was constitutional to engage in the alleged violation. Proponents of mandatory sequencing argue that, in light of the risk that the Fourth Amendment "reasonableness" inquiry and the qualified immunity "objective reasonableness" inquiry might be conflated, it is vital to require that courts make a specific and separate determination on the constitutionality of the officer's behavior. Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Petitioners at 26-27, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751).
  • 83
    • 33750523997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a discussion on how mandatory sequencing might result in the creation of "bad" law, see Pierre N. Leval, Judging Under the Constitution: Dicta About Dicta, 81 N.Y.U. L. REV. 1249, 1279 (2006) (stating that mandatory sequencing "is a blueprint for the creation of bad constitutional law"). See also Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393, 430-31 (2007) (Breyer, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part) (noting that mandatory sequencing could "require [courts] to resolve constitutional issues that are poorly presented"); Horne v. Coughlin, 191 F.3d 244, 247 (2d Cir. 1999) (stating that under a mandatory sequencing regime "[j]udges risk being insufficiently thoughtful and cautious in uttering pronouncements that play no role in their adjudication"); Brief for the State of Illinois et al. as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioners at 20-21, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751) (noting that mandatory sequencing can result in less-than-adequate briefing of issues, and citing a case wherein "the merits of [the constitutional] issue [were] scarcely mentioned in the briefs on appeal, let alone adequately briefed" (quoting African Trade & Info. Ctr., Inc. v. Abromaitis, 294 F.3d 355, 359 (2d Cir. 2002)) (alteration in original)); Leong, supra note 11, at 680-81 (noting that the possibility of creating "bad" law "is compounded by the fact that courts often confront the qualified immunity question early in the course of litigation").
    • (2006) Judging Under the Constitution: Dicta About Dicta , vol.81 , Issue.1249 , pp. 1279
    • Leval, P.N.1
  • 84
    • 75649144493 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Morse, 551 U.S. at 430 (Breyer, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part) (noting that mandatory sequencing can "wast[e] judicial resources"); Brosseau v. Haugen, 543 U.S. 194, 201-02 (2004) (Breyer, J., concurring) ("[W]hen courts' dockets are crowded, a rigid "order of battle' makes little administrative sense...."); Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Petitioners at 31, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751) ("[An inflexible merits-first sequence] requires the reviewing court to decide the constitutional issue as an initial matter even if resolution of that question is difficult and time-consuming, even if members of an appellate panel are divided about its proper resolution, and even if the court's disposition of the issue turns on idiosyncratic, case- specific factors so that its opinion provides little guidance for future disputes."); Leval, supra note 77, at 1279 n.89 ("[Mandatory sequencing] increases the workload of an already overburdened judiciary."). Contra Brief of Respondent at 53, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751) (Where sequencing is not mandatory, "district judges may exercise their discretion in a way that does not give the proper weight to [elaborating of constitutional law], by putting their own interest in clearing their dockets as efficiently as possible ahead of the Court's policy of elaborating constitutional norms." (citing Michael L. Wells, The Order-of- Battle in Constitutional Litigation, 60 SMU L. REV. 1539, 1566 (2007))).
  • 85
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    • note
    • See, e.g., Morse, 551 U.S. at 431 (Breyer, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part) (noting that sequencing could "immunize an incorrect constitutional holding from further review"); Bunting v. Mellen, 541 U.S. 1019, 1023 (2004) (Scalia, J., dissenting) ("[Mandatory sequencing] should not apply where a favorable judgment on qualified-immunity grounds would deprive a party of an opportunity to appeal the unfavorable (and often more significant) constitutional determination."); Lyons v. City of Xenia, 417 F.3d 565, 582 (6th Cir. 2005) (Sutton, J., concurring) ("By multiplying constitutional holdings that are not subject to review in the normal course, a rigid application of the two-step inquiry may do as much to unsettle the law as to settle it."); Horne, 191 F.3d at 247 ("If those government actors defer to the courts' declarations and modify their procedures accordingly, new constitutional rights will have effectively been established by the dicta of [the] lower court without the defendants having the right to appellate review.").
  • 86
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    • For a discussion of whether, when a plaintiff loses on the second prong of the Saucier inquiry, a finding that a constitutional right has been violated constitutes dictum or a holding of the court, compare Greabe, supra note 55, at 408, with Melissa Armstrong, Note, Rule Pragmatism: Theory and Application to Qualified Immunity Analysis, 38 COLUM. J.L. & SOC. PROBS. 107, 123-28 (2004). See also Bunting, 541 U.S. at 1023-24 (2004) (Scalia, J., dissenting) ("[C]onstitutional determination is not mere dictum in the ordinary sense, since the whole reason we require it to be set forth (despite the availability of qualified immunity) is to clarify the law and thus make unavailable repeated claims of qualified immunity in future cases.").
  • 87
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    • note
    • See, e.g., Greabe, supra note 55, at 418-24 (arguing that mandatory sequencing does not often impinge upon separation of powers principles embodied in avoidance doctrine); Seth F. Kreimer, Exploring the Dark Matter of Judicial Review: A Constitutional Census of the 1990s, 5 WM. & MARY BILL RTS. J. 427, 459, 466, 506-07 (1997) (pointing out that in relatively few qualified immunity actions are courts asked to rule on the validity of acts of Congress or high ranking executive officials).
  • 88
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    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201 (2001).
  • 89
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    • note
    • Prior to recent empirical work on this matter, some scholars had done rough calculations of courts' behaviors under Siegert's optional sequencing regime. See Greabe, note 55, at 419 n.35 (finding that courts skipped the constitutional question in fiftyone of seventy-nine representative qualified immunity cases decided around 1997 in which the defendant won on the immunity issue).
  • 90
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    • note
    • Hughes, Prior to recent empirical work on this matter, some scholars had done rough calculations of courts' behaviors under Siegert's optional sequencing regime. See Greabe, note 55, at 419 n.35 (finding that courts skipped the constitutional question in fiftyone of seventy-nine representative qualified immunity cases decided around 1997 in which the defendant won on the immunity issue) note 11, at 418, 424.
  • 91
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    • note
    • Brief of Respondent, Hughes, Prior to recent empirical work on this matter, some scholars had done rough calculations of courts' behaviors under Siegert's optional sequencing regime. See Greabe note 78 at 51, 54.
  • 92
    • 75649111659 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Brief for the National Campaign to Restore Civil Rights as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondent at 24-26, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751); Brief of National Police Accountability Project and Ass'n of American Justice as Amici Curaie Supporting Respondent at 17, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751).
  • 93
    • 75649087473 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong, See, e.g., Brief for the National Campaign to Restore Civil Rights as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondent at 24-26, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751); Brief of National Police Accountability Project and Ass'n of American Justice as Amici Curaie Supporting Respondent at 17, Pearson, 129 S. Ct. 808 (No. 07-751). note 11, at 692-93.
  • 94
    • 75649146351 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The search string was: "qualified /2 immunity % ci(slip no not unpub! unreport! table)." The search was performed on December 15, 2008. While selecting cases from the Westlaw database and further selecting only published and reported opinions may introduce some inherent bias in the sample, see, e.g., Leong, supra note 11, at 685 n.88, 701-02 (performing logistic regressions to conclude that observed effects in that study were not attributable to Westlaw's publication bias), this Note deliberately includes only published opinions because unpublished opinions are not precedential and thus do not contribute to the "clear establishment" of constitutional rights. See Hughes, supra note 11, at 419 & n.112.
  • 95
    • 0036332194 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Lee Epstein & Gary King, The Rules of Inference, 69 U. CHI. L. REV. 1, 108- 12 (2002) (explaining methodological advantage of using random sample in large-n studies to minimize selection bias).
  • 96
    • 75649108643 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Paul W. Hughes, Not a Failed Experiment: Wilson-Saucier Sequencing and the Articulation of Constitutional Rights app. D (Aug. 4, 2008) (unpublished appendix, on file with author).
  • 97
    • 75649110915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See infra Appendix A.
  • 98
    • 75649149947 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Shero v. City of Grove, 510 F.3d 1196, 1204 (10th Cir. 2007) (holding that city's and city employees' actions in rejecting plaintiff's requests for council packets, limiting his speaking time at a city council meeting, and filing a declaratory judgment suit against him did not violate his First Amendment rights); Butler v. Rio Rancho Pub. Sch. Bd. of Educ., 341 F.3d 1197, 1201 (10th Cir. 2003) (holding that no substantive due process violation had been alleged where school suspended student for possession of a weapon).
  • 99
    • 75649090881 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Williams v. Greifinger, 97 F.3d 699, 706-08 (2d Cir. 1996) (holding that prison policy of denying exercise to inmates had long been found to violate the Eighth Amendment, and that it was objectively unreasonable for defendant to believe he was not violating a clearly established right); Scott v. Glumac, 3 F.3d 163, 167 (7th Cir. 1993) (holding that seizure of defendant's automobile was a violation of his Fourth Amendment rights and that a reasonable officer could not have believed there was probable cause to seize the car).
  • 100
    • 75649091591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Bilida v. McCleod, 211 F.3d 166, 174-75 (1st Cir. 2000) (holding that defendant officers had violated plaintiff's Fourth Amendment rights, but were protected by qualified immunity based on a lack of prior precedent on the matter and their reasonable common belief that their superior had secured a warrant); Clue v. Johnson, 179 F.3d 57, 61- 62 (2d Cir. 1999) (holding that defendant's behavior violated the First Amendment rights of union members, but defendant was entitled to qualified immunity because no court had recognized such rights as of the date of the violation).
  • 101
    • 75649113931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Maggio v. Sipple, 211 F.3d 1346, 1354 (11th Cir. 2000) (holding that plaintiff had failed to allege a First Amendment retaliation claim, and could not show, in the alternative, that a reasonable person in the defendants' position would have been on notice that her actions violated clearly-established law); Saylor v. Bd. of Educ., 118 F.3d 507, 513, 515 (6th Cir. 1997) (holding that plaintiff had failed to allege a violation of his substantive due process rights in a corporal punishment claim, and, in the alternative, that the rights in question were not clearly established).
  • 102
    • 75649084263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Martin v. Snyder, 329 F.3d 919, 921-22 (7th Cir. 2003) (holding that prison official did not violate any clearly established rights under the Fourteenth Amendment by delaying a prisoner's right to marry); Molinelli v. Tucker, 901 F.2d 13, 16- 17 (2d Cir. 1990) (holding that the constitutional status of urine testing for public employees under the Fourth Amendment was not clearly established at the time plaintiff's urine was tested, and thus defendants were protected by the qualified immunity defense).
  • 103
    • 75649138088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This data is summarized infra in Table 1. This Note does not focus on the preSiegert data because that period represents a time when lower courts had no formal guidance from the Supreme Court on sequencing. Therefore, although we consider all data, including pre-Siegert, in Table 1 for the sake of thoroughness, the comparisons that are meaningful for exploring the effects of discretionary versus mandatory sequencing involve only pre- and post-Saucier data, as summarized in Tables 2 and 3.
  • 104
    • 75649126066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Throughout this Note, we combine outcomes 1 and 4 because for both an appellate court first confronts the substantive constitutional question and subsequently holds that the plaintiff did not allege a constitutional violation. The pronouncement of outcome 4, that the law was not clearly established at the time of conduct, is merely in the alternative. Note, however, that Table 1 indicates that the frequency of outcome 4 was nearly the same across periods.
  • 105
    • 75649135391 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong posits this conclusion. Leong, Throughout this Note, we combine outcomes 1 and 4 because for both an appellate court first confronts the substantive constitutional question and subsequently holds that the plaintiff did not allege a constitutional violation. The pronouncement of outcome 4, that the law was not clearly established at the time of conduct, is merely in the alternative. Note, however, that Table 1 indicates that the frequency of outcome 4 was nearly the same across periods note 11, at 692-93.
  • 106
    • 75649083917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • There is no relationship between the name of the test and Pearson v. Callahan, 129 S. Ct. 808 (2009).
  • 107
    • 75649083550 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See ROBERT V. HOGG, JOSEPH W. MCKEAN & ALLEN T. CRAIG, INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS 182-84 (6th ed. 2005) (explaining Student's t-test).
  • 108
    • 75649127712 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a more detailed elaboration of Student's t-test applied to data from this study, see infra Appendix.
  • 109
    • 75649105114 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Jeffries, For a more detailed elaboration of Student's t-test applied to data from this study, see infra Appendix note 56, at 87-88.
  • 110
    • 75649093849 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong, For a more detailed elaboration of Student's t-test applied to data from this study, see infra Appendix note 11, at 670.
  • 111
    • 75649119370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id. at 692-93 ("[Appellate and district c]ourts [after Saucier] avoid fewer constitutional questions, and as a result, generate more constitutional law. But the new constitutional law-law that would not have been made before Siegert and Saucier- uniformly denies the existence of plaintiffs' constitutional rights.").
  • 112
    • 75649128056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See infra Table 4.
  • 113
    • 75649115064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See See infra Table 4.
  • 114
    • 75649118290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Leong, See See infra Table 4. note 11, at 693.
  • 115
    • 75649115455 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For example, Leong writes "the percentage of claims where the court found no constitutional right existed increased dramatically, from 46.2% pre-Siegert to 84.9% in 2006-2007." Leong, See See infra Table 4. note 11. at 690.
  • 116
    • 75649129413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201 (2001); see also Pearson v. Callahan, 129 S. Ct. 808, 815-16 (2009) (noting that Saucier mandated sequencing).
  • 117
    • 75649152175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Siegert v. Gilley, 500 U.S. 226, 232 (1991).
  • 118
    • 75649094600 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 959 F.2d 539 (5th Cir. 1992).
  • 119
    • 75649108642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 959 F.2d 539 (5th Cir. 1992). at 545 n.4.
  • 120
    • 75649136288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 987 F.2d 1 (1st Cir. 1993).
  • 121
    • 75649112721 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 987 F.2d 1 (1st Cir. 1993). at 7 (emphasis added).
  • 122
    • 75649123011 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Eversole v. Steele, 59 F.3d 710, 717 (7th Cir. 1995) ("When a defendant raises the defense of qualified immunity, this court engages in a two-part, objective inquiry: the court must determine (1) whether the plaintiff has asserted a violation of a federal constitutional right, and (2) whether the constitutional standards implicated were clearly established at the time in question."); Wooten v. Campbell, 49 F.3d 696, 699 (11th Cir. 1995) ("Accordingly, we must first undertake an examination of Wooten's complaint to determine if she possesses a right subject to a constitutional violation."); Martinez v. Mafchir, 35 F.3d 1486, 1490 (10th Cir. 1994) ("To reach the question of whether a defendant official is entitled to qualified immunity, a court must first ascertain whether the plaintiff has sufficiently asserted the violation of a constitutional right at all."); Ricker v. Leapley, 25 F.3d 1406, 1409 (8th Cir. 1994) ("To determine whether [defendants] violated a clearly established right, we must first determine "whether [plaintiff] has asserted a violation of a constitutional right at all.'" (quoting Siegert, 500 U.S. at 232)); Centanni v. Eight Unknown Officers, 15 F.3d 587, 589 (6th Cir. 1994) ("The threshold issue is whether a constitutional right has been violated."); Acierno v. Mitchell, 6 F.3d 970, 977 n.18 (3d Cir. 1993) ("Before determining whether [defendant] is entitled to qualified immunity, we must determine whether plaintiff has sufficiently alleged a constitutional violation."); Navarro v. Barthel, 952 F.2d 331, 333 (9th Cir. 1991) ("Under the Supreme Court's recent decision in Siegert v. Gilley... we must first determine whether [plaintiffs] have "asserted a violation of a constitutional right at all'" (citation omitted) (quoting Siegert, 500 U.S. at 232)); Hunter v. District of Columbia, 943 F.2d 69, 76 (D.C. Cir. 1991) (concluding that Siegert "mandat[ed]" a two-part qualified immunity analysis under which the court must determine
  • 123
    • 75649103663 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • These codes and descriptions were taken directly from Hughes, supra note 90, at app. D.
  • 124
    • 75649100965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • These codes and descriptions were taken directly from Hughes, supra note 90, at app. D.
  • 125
    • 75649135615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The term "population" does not refer to the randomly selected sample, but instead to the full population-here, the full number of federal appellate § 1983 qualified immunity decisions decided during Periods two and three.


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