Rock weathering on the eastern mountains of southern Africa: Review and insights from case studies

Journal of African Earth Sciences

Volumn 55, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 236-244

  Sumner, P D ^a   Hall, K J ^a,b   van Rooy, J L ^a   Meiklejohn, K I ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Drakensberg; Lesotho; Lesotho Highlands Water Project; Rock art; Weathering

Indexed keywords

BASALT; BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING; CHEMICAL WEATHERING; ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS; MOUNTAIN; PALEOENVIRONMENT; SANDSTONE; TEMPERATURE EFFECT;

DRAKENSBERG; LESOTHO;

EID: 75149169864     PISSN: 08995362     EISSN: 1464343X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2009.04.010     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. Alley R.B., Mayewski P.A., Sowers T., Stuiver M., Taylor K.C., and Clark P.U. Holocene climatic instability: a prominent widespread event 8200 yr ago. Geology 25 (1997) 483-486
2. André M.F., Hall K.J., Bertran P., and Arocena J. Stone runs in the Falkland islands: periglacial or tropical?. Geomorphology 95 (2008) 524-543
3. Arocena J.M., Hall K.J., and Meiklejohn K.I. Minerals provide tints and possible binder/extender in pigments in San rock paintings (South Africa). Geoarchaeology 23 (2008) 293-304
4. Avery G. The preservation of rock-art with special reference to South African problems and conditions. South African Archaeological Bulletin 30 (1974) 139-142
5. Bakkevig S. Rock art preservation: improved and ecology-based methods can give weathered sites prolonged life. Norwegian Archaeological Review 37 (2004) 65-81
6. Batchelor A. Preservation of South African rock art. Unpublished Summarized Report (1990), Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria
7. Bednarik R.G. A taphonomy of palaeoart. Antiquity 68 (1994) 68-74
8. Bell F.G., and Haskins D.R. A geotechnical overview of Katse Dam and Transfer Tunnel, Lesotho, with a note on basalt durability. Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 175-198
9. Benedetti D., Bontempi E., Pedrazzani R., Zacco A., and Depero L.E. Transformation of calcium carbonate stones: some examples. Phase Transitions 81 (2008) 155-178
10. Beukes, N., 1970. Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the cave sandstone stage, Karoo system. In: Proceedings of the Second International Gondwana Symposium, South Africa, pp. 321-328.
11. Boelhouwers J.C. Periglacial landforms at Giant's Castle, Natal Drakensberg, South Africa. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 5 (1994) 129-136
12. Boelhouwers J.C. A discussion on block weathering in southern Africa and its significance to periglacial autochthonous blockfield development. Polar Geography 23 (1999) 12-22
13. Boelhouwers J.C. Relict periglacial slope deposits in the Hex River Mountains, South Africa: observations and palaeoenvironmental implications. Geomorphology 30 (1999) 245-258
14. Boelhouwers J.C., and Meiklejohn K.I. Quaternary periglacial and glacial geomorphology of southern Africa: a review and synthesis. South African Journal of Science 98 (2002) 47-55
15. Boelhouwers J.C., and Sumner P.D. The palaeoenvironmental significance of southern African blockfields and blockstreams. In: Phillips M. (Ed). Permafrost - ICOP 2003 (2003), Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse 73-78
16. Boelhouwers J.C., Holness S., Meiklejohn K.I., and Sumner P.D. Observations on a blockstream in the vicinity of Sani Pass, Lesotho Highlands. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 13 (2002) 251-257
17. Bradley R., Jones A., Myhre L.N., and Sackett H. Sailing through stone: carved ships and the rock face at Revheim, southwest Norway. Norwegian Archaeological Review 35 (2002) 109-118
18. Brink A.B.A. Engineering Geology of Southern Africa. The Karoo Sequence vol. 3 (1983), Building Publications, Silverton, Pretoria
19. Bullet T.R., and Prosser J.L. Paint: a surface modifier. Physics Technology 14 (1983) 491-500
20. Caine N. The Mountains of Northeastern Tasmania (1983), Balkema, Rotterdam
21. Casellato U., Vigato P.A., Russo U., and Matteini M. A Mössbauer approach to the physico-chemical characterization of iron-containing pigments for historical wall paintings. Journal of Cultural Heritage 1 (2000) 217-232
22. Castro D.J., and Bell F.G. An engineering geological appraisal of the sandstones of the Clarens Formation, Lesotho, in relation to tunneling. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 13 (1995) 117-142
23. Chalmin E., Menu M., and Vignaud C. Analysis of rock art painting and technology of Palaeolithic painters. Measurement Science and Technology 14 (2003) 1590-1597
24. Cox K.G., and Hornung G. The petrology of the Karroo basalts of Basutoland. American Mineralogist 51 (1966) 1414-1432
25. Davidson W.H. The influence of constitution of the engineering properties of crushed volcanic breccias. Proceedings of the 6th Australian Road Research Board Conference 6 5 (1972) 7-90
26. Deer W.A., Howie R.A., and Zussman J. Rock forming minerals. Chain silicates, vol. 2. Framework silicates, vol. 4 (1963), Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London pp. 127-129
27. Deflorian F., Rossi S., Fedrizzi L., and Zanella C. Comparison of organic coating accelerated tests and natural weathering considering meteorological data. Progress in Organic Coatings 59 (2007) 244-250
28. Duncan A.R., and Marsh J.S. The Karoo igneous province. In: Johnson M.R., Anhaeusser C.R., and Thomas R.J. (Eds). The Geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa (2006), Johannesburg/Council for Geoscience, Pretoria 501-520
29. Dunlevey J.N., Ramluckan V.R., and Mithcell A.A. Secondary mineral zonation in the Drakensberg Basalt Formation, South Africa. South African Journal of Geology 96 (1993) 215-220
30. Egli M., Mirabella A., Sartori G., and Fitze P. Weathering rates as a function of climate: results from a climosequence of the Val Genova (Trentino, Italian Alps). Geoderma 111 (2003) 99-121
31. Eriksson P.G. A palaeoenvironmental analysis of the Clarens Formation in the Natal Drakensberg. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa 84 (1981) 7-17
32. Eriksson, P.G., 1983. A palaeoenvironmental study of the Molteno, Elliot and Clarens Formations in the Natal Drakensberg and northeastern Orange Free State. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg.
33. Etienne S. The role of biological weathering in periglacial areas: a study of weathering rinds in Iceland. Geomorphology 47 (2002) 75-86
34. Grab S.W. Near-surface rockwall temperatures in the high Drakensberg basalt: spatio-temporal differences and possible implications for weathering. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 51 Suppl. 1 (2007) 103-113
35. Grab S.W. Rock surface temperatures of basalt in the Drakensberg alpine environment, Lesotho. Geografiska Annaler 89A (2007) 185-193
36. Gonzalez I., Laiz L., Hermosin B., Caballero B., Incerti C., and Saiz-Jimenez C. Bacteria isolated from rock art paintings: the case of Atlanterra shelter (south Spain). Journal of Microbiological Methods 36 (1999) 123-127
37. Hall K.J. The allocation of the freeze-thaw weathering mechanism in geocryological studies: a critical comment. South African Geographical Journal 73 (1991) 10-13
38. Hall K.J. A discussion on the need for greater rigour in southern African cryogenic studies. South African Geographical Journal 74 (1992) 69-71
39. Hall K.J. Evidence for freeze-thaw events and their implications for rock weathering in northern Canada: II. The temperature at which water freezes in rock. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 32 (2007) 249-259
40. Hall K.J., and Hall A. Weathering by wetting and drying: some experimental results. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21 (1996) 365-376
41. Hall K.J., Meiklejohn K.I., Arocena J., Prinsloo L., Sumner P.D., and Hall L. Deterioration of San rock art: new findings, new challenges. South African Journal of Science 103 (2007) 361-362
42. Hall K.J., Meiklejohn I., and Arocena J. The thermal responses of rock art pigments: implications for rock art weathering in southern Africa. Geomorphology 91 (2007) 132-145
43. Hao Z., and Iqbal A. Some aspects of organic pigments. Chemical Society Reviews 26 (1997) 203-213
44. Hay R.L. Geological occurrence of zeolites. In: Sand L.B., and Mumpton F.A. (Eds). Natural Zeolites: Occurrence, Properties, Use (1978), Pergamon Press 135-143
45. Hoerlé S. A preliminary study of the weathering activity at the rock art site of Game Pass Shelter (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) in relation to its conservation. South African Journal of Geology 108 (2005) 297-308
46. Hoerlé S. Rock temperatures as an indicator of weathering processes affecting rock art. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 31 (2006) 383-389
47. Hoerlé S., and Salomon A. Microclimatic data and rock art conservation at Game Pass Shelter in the Kamberg Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science 100 (2004) 340-341
48. Hradil D., Grygar T., Hradilova J., and Bezdička P. Clay and iron oxide pigments in the history of painting. Applied Clay Science 22 (2003) 223-236
49. Irwin, P., Akhurst, J., Irwin, D., 1980. A Field guide to the Natal Drakensberg. Natal Branch of the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa.
50. King L.C. South African Scenery (1945), Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh
51. Lesotho Highlands Consultants (LHC), 1994. LHWP Mineralogy report for review by the project manager LHC. Report 164/448, May 1994.
52. Loubser J.H.N. The conservation of rock paintings in Australia and its applicability to South Africa. Navorsing van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein 7 (1991) 113-143
53. Mazel A.D., and Watchman A. Dating Rock Paintings in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg and the Biggarsberg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Southern Africa Humanities 15 (2003) 59-73
54. Meiklejohn, K.I., 1994. Aspects of the weathering of the Clarens Formation in the KwaZulu/Natal Drakensberg: Implications for the preservation of indigenous rock art. Unpublished Ph.D., Geography Depart, University of Natal (Pietermaritzburg).
55. Meiklejohn K.I. The role of moisture in the weathering of the Clarens Formation in the KwaZulu/Natal Drakensberg: Implications for the deterioration and preservation of indigenous rock art. South African Geographical Journal 79 (1997) 199-206
56. Nel W., and Sumner P.D. Rainfall and temperature attributes on the Lesotho-Drakensberg escarpment edge, southern Africa. Geografiska Annaler 90A (2008) 97-108
57. Odlyha M., Boon J.J., van den Brink O., and Baci M. Environmental research for art conservation (ERA). Journal of Thermal Analysis 49 (1997) 1571-1584
58. Olivier Shand and Lahmeyer MacDonald Consortium (OSC), 1986. Lesotho Highlands Water Project. Feasibility Study, April 1986. Unpublished Report.
59. Perera D.Y. On adhesion and stress in organic coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings 28 (1996) 21-23
60. Pope G.A., Meierding T.C., and Paradise T.R. Geomorphology's role in the study of weathering of cultural stone. Geomorphology 47 (2002) 211-225
61. Roper, H., 1959. Study of shrinking aggregates in concrete. Special Technical Report No. 502. CSIR, December 1959.
62. Rea B.R., Whalley W.B., Rainey M.M., and Gordon J.E. Blockfields, old or new? Evidence and implications from some plateaus in northern Norway. Geomorphology 15 (1996) 109-121
63. Rudner I. The Conservation of Rock Art in South Africa (1989), National Monuments Council, Cape Town
64. Sumner P.D. Geomorphic and climatic implications of relict openwork block accumulations near Thabana-Ntlenyana, Lesotho. Geografiska Annaler 86A (2004) 181-194
65. Sumner P.D., and de Villiers S. On the palaeoenvironmental implications of the Amatola screes. South African Journal of Science 98 (2002) 598-601
66. Sumner P.D., and Meiklejohn K.I. On the development of autochthonous blockfields in the grey basalts of sub-Antarctic Marion Island. Polar Geography 28 (2004) 120-132
67. Sumner P.D., and Loubser M.J. Experimental sandstone weathering using different wetting and drying moisture amplitudes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 33 (2008) 385-390
68. Sumner P.D., and Nel W. Surface-climate attributes at Injisuthi Outpost, Drakensberg, and possible ramifications for weathering. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 31 (2006) 1445-1451
69. Turkington A.V., and Paradise T.R. Sandstone weathering: a century of research and innovation. Geomorphology 67 (2005) 229-253
70. Van Rijssen W.J.J. Paintings in peril. South African Archaeological Bulletin 42 (1987) 5-9
71. Van Rooy, J.L., 1992. Some rock durability aspects of Drakensberg basalts for civil engineering construction. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Pretoria.
72. Van Rooy J.L., and van Schalkwyk A. The geology of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project with special reference to the durability of construction materials. Journal of African Earth Sciences 16 (1993) 181-192
73. Viles H.A. Scale issues in weathering studies. Geomorphology 41 (2001) 63-72
74. Walker F., and Poldervaart A. Karroo dolerites of the Union of South Africa. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 60 (1949) 591-706
75. Waites B. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project. Geography 85 (2000) 369-374
76. Weinert H.H. The Natural Road Construction Materials of Southern Africa (1980), Academica, Pretoria
77. Zoppi A., Signorini G.F., Lucarelli F., and Bachechi L. Characterization of painting materials from Eritrea rock art sites with non-destructive spectroscopic techniques. Journal of Cultural Heritage 3 (2002) 299-308