Ankara, a small town, transformed to a nation's capital

Journal of Planning History

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 43-65

  Kacar, Duygu ^a  

^a MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Ankara; Competition; Education; Exile; Flow of planning ideas; Government policy; History; Migration; Transfers of thinking and expertise; Turkey; Urban planning policy

Indexed keywords

CAPITAL CITY; EDUCATION; STATE BUILDING; STATE ROLE; URBAN DESIGN; URBAN PLANNING; URBAN POLICY;

ANKARA [ANKARA (PRV)]; ANKARA [TURKEY]; TURKEY;

EID: 74849118015     PISSN: 15385132     EISSN: 15526585     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1538513209359869     Document Type: Article

References (67)

1. Istanbul, which under various names had for years served as the capital of the Ottoman Empire, is located where Asia meets Europe, close to the northwestern periphery of Turkey.
2. The first administrator who did a population count of the world was Klodius, the Emperor of Rome in a.d. 42. When the Roman Empire was 70 million, the whole world's population was estimated to be 250 million. During that period, Ankara's population was recorded as 100,000 (A. Galante, Ankara Tarihi [History of Ankara], vol. I [Istanbul, Turkey: Ages Publishing, 1951]).
3. For detailed information, see Rifat Ozdemir, XIX, Yuzyilda Ankara [Ankara in the XIXth Century] (Ankara, Turkey: Kultur ve Turizm Bakanligi Yayinlari, 1986), 99-135.
4. Request to reprint was sent to the Web site of the Department of Geography, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, on February 12, 2009. Source: Vehbi Koç and Ankara Research Center (VEKAM), Ankara, Turkey.
5. Mehmet Ali Kilicbay, "Sof Şehri Ankara," in Ankara Ankara, ed. Enis Batur (Istanbul, Turkey: Yapý Kredi Yayýnlarý, 1994), 69. Source: Vehbi Koç and Ankara Research Center (VEKAM), Ankara, Turkey.
6. B. Şimir, Ankara Ankara: Bir Başkentin Doǧuşu (Ankara, Turkey: Bilgi Yayinevi, 1988), 390-91.
7. The war is alternately referred to as the War of Independence or the War of Liberation against the occupying countries-Britain, France, Italy, and Greece.
8. R. Keleş, "I̊smet Inönünü'de Dengeli Kentsel ve Kýrsal Gelime DüşÜncesi," Ankara Üniversitesi Yillyik, Sayi 9 (1986-1987), 88.
9. F. R. Atay, Çankaya: Atatürk'un Dogumundan Olumune Kadar (Istanbul, Turkey: Pozitif Yayinlari, 1952).
10. Rýza Börekçi, who served as Ankara's Chief of the Rumeli People's Rights party and their Protection Organization bought a Bag evi (orchard house) in the Çankaya district of Ankara. They bought it from Bulgurzade Mehmet and Rýfat Bey in the name of the people of Ankara and gave it as a gift to "Gazi" Mustafa Kemal. At that time, the Çankaya area was composed of simple orchard houses with lots of greenery. In 1923, Vedat Bey (who later took the last name of Tek) expanded this house, which was later donated to the army. It was renamed Ordu Kosk (Army Palace). Additions that were subsequently made included a ceremony room, dining rooms, study rooms, and a library. This was the first government building in Çankaya and Atatürk's first residence. Gazi lived there from 1923 to 1932. Later, it was converted into a museum. His books, billiards table, wardrobes, bed, various household items that he used from 1923 to 1932, as well as the many gifts presented to him by heads of states were displayed there. From an article by Eser Tutel, "Çankaya'nýn Hanýmefendileri" (The First Ladies of the Turkish White House equivalent), in the April 2008 issue of Bütün Dünya (a Turkish periodical similar to the Readers' Digest). To this day, this orchard house remains, next to the current presidential residence.
11. The official name of the syndicate was the Ottoman-American Development Company.
12. According to documents in the Ministry of Public Works, the firm Junkers was willing to construct buildings for Mustafa Kemal himself (dated November 09, 1926, folder no. 230). In 1927, Joseph Bariyavem, the architect of gardens and parks, was also applying for a job (dated August 06, 1927, folder no. 230).
13. The law of "ehremaneti" was announced in the newspaper of that time, Hakimiyet-I Milliye, on May 6, 1926. New regulations were arranged with this law in order to construct the new city. After this law, 4,000,000 square meters (988.42 acres) of land were expropriated by Law No. 583, in 1925. Also, the Emlak ve Eytam Bank was established in 1926 for the purposes of financing the building process, showing that the financial management was not held locally. I. Tekeli, "Kent Tarihi Yazýmý Konusunda Yeni Bir Paradigma Önerisi," in Cumhuriyet'in Ankara'sý, ed. T. Şenypaili (Ankara, Turkey: ODTU Yayincilik, 2005), 2-21.
14. Clearly, the Ottoman empire had no shortage of good architects. This is attested by Istanbul's old mosques, palaces, military quarters, hammams (communal bathhouses), and former madrassas. These are well-preserved examples of Ottoman architecture. One can also find such landmarks throughout the Middle East and other outlying districts of the old empire. Among these are bridges that are still standing in Europe, like the Mostar Bridge and many madrassas in Iran, some by Mimar Sinan.
15. Brazil's relocation of its capital city into the country's interior comes closest. Brasilia, with a population of 2,600,000 in 2008, was also a national capital that started from ground up in a fast-developing nation. However, planning for that city did not begin until 1956. This was three decades following that of Ankara. Other than the capital cities of the Gulf states, which had their capitals planned after the countries gained independence and after the onset of the 1970s oil boom, comparable examples of such developments circa the twentieth century are still hard to find.
16. The original archive documents are displayed and interpreted in A. Cengizkan, Ankara'nýn I̊lk Plam: 1924-25 Lörcher Planý (Ankara, Turkey: Arkadaş Yainevi, 2004).
17. A. Cengizkan, "Ankara 1924-25 Lörcher Planý: Bir Baokenti Tasarlamak ve Sonrasi," Arredamento Mimarlýk, 2002/10 (2002), 220.
18. Reprinted with permission from A. Cengizkan, Ankara'nýn Ýlk Planý: 1924-25 Lörcher Plam (Ankara, Turkey: Arkadaş Yainevi), p. 245.
19. For a comprehensive study on Lörcher and his plans for Ankara, please see Cengizkan, Ankara'mn I̊lk Plam.
20. T. C. Ankara Şehremaneti, Ankara Şehrinin Professor M. Jausseley, Jansen ve Brix Tarafýndan Yapýlan Plan ve Projelerine Ait Ýzahnameler (Ankara, 1929), 3.
21. http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/landschaftsplanung/chronik/ index_en.shtml.
22. A legend has it that the original plan was for say 3,000 people. Ismet Inonu saw the plan and added one zero to that number, and when Atatürk saw the plan he added another zero, increasing the population another tenfold. The city was thus planned for 300,000. Currently, the city has more than four million inhabitants.
23. Atay, Çankaya, 488-89.
24. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
25. For further information, please see A. T. Yavuz, ed., Tarih Icinde Ankara, Seminar Proceedings (Ankara, Turkey: TBMM Publication, 2000). Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
26. Currently, the castle is mostly used for touristic purposes and for recreation. Therefore, restaurants, cafes, and pubs take their place in this space along with dwellings for lower-income groups. Among all, the Anatolian Civilizations Museum attracts the most visitors, since all the civilizations and their artifacts are presented here.
27. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
28. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital. In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents, and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. By 2007, its population was well over four million. So this axis could not satisfy the needs. Difficulties arise from the lack of planning of auxiliary roads to channel the traffic elsewhere. Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
29. Unfortunately, neither of the terminals were constructed according to Jansen's plan.
30. Without competitive bidding.
31. Bureaucrats spent most of their time in public buildings. Outside of work, they lived and stayed in the environment of government-supplied housing limited to the functionaries of civil service. According to parliamentarian Altan Öymen, living in apartments was a sign of class promotion. Many of the Ottoman aristocratic families were familiar with mansions, yet they preferred living in apartments-a must for modern life.
32. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
33. With all due respect to Jansen, it appears that the most modernist thrust of that time was toward highrise apartments of ten or more stories. The authors are grateful to an anonymous JPH reviewer for pointing this out. Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
34. B. Günay, "Ankara Çekirdek Alanýnýn Olsuumu ve Nazim Plani Hakkinda Bir Deǧerlendirme," in Cumhuriyet'in Ankara'si, Şypaih, 71-73.
35. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
36. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey. Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
37. Günay, "Ankara Çekirdek Alanýnýn Oluşumu," 76. Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
38. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
39. Please see S. Bozdogan, Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2001). Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
40. Foreign architects were given preference to carry out large state projects. Consequently, Turkish architects turned to the planning and construction of apartments, residences, and housing complexes. In designing private dwellings, Turkish architects created domestic structures and spaces that reconfigured the relationships of men and women as well as parents and children. Sibel Bozdoan, Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.2001). Source: Vehbi Koç ve Ankara Arastirmalari Merkezi (VEKAM). Reprinted with permission.
41. From B. Evren, 20'li Yýllarýn Bozkýr Kasabasý Ankara (Ýstanbul, Turkey: AD Kitapçýlýk, Ba{eth}cýlar, 1998), 206.
42. METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
43. "Ankara ve Ankaralilar," Hakimiyeti Milliye, September 7, 1932.
44. Atay, Çankaya, 422-23. Source: METU Department of CRP Maps & Plans Documentation Unit, Ankara. Reprinted with permission.
45. S. V. Ward, Planning the Twentieth Century City: The Advanced Capitalist World (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2002), 127.
46. L. J. Vale, Architecture, Power and National Identity (London: Routledge, 1992), 120.
47. G. Tankut, "Jansen Plani Uygulama Sorunlaryi ve Cumhuriyet Demokrasisinin Kent Planina Yaklaşimi," in Tarih I̊cinde Ankara: Eylül 1981 Seminer Bildirileri, ed. E. Yavuz et al. (Ankara, Turkey: ODTÜ Mimarlik Fakültesi Basim I̊liǧi, 1984), 303.
48. At least one of a handful of Turkey's current oligarchic families played a role in Ankara's early development. Vehbi Koç, a small shopkeeper, expanded the scope of his hardware business when Ankara became the capital of Turkey. He entered the construction sector and the trade of construction materials. One of Vehbi Koç's first jobs for the government was providing tiles for the roof construction on the Holzmeister-designed Turkish Grand National Assembly building. He went on to found the Koc Holding set of companies, currently one of the two largest commercial and industrial conglomerates in Turkey.
49. There was also one from Italy and one from Switzerland.
50. Vienna crematorium, 1921/1922. (a) Religious buildings, e.g., in Batschuns (Vorarlberg), 1921-1923; Blankenese (Germany), 1929-1930; Hermeskeil (Germany), 1929-1931; Hermeskeil (Germany), 1929-1931; Berlin, St. Adalbert (Germany), 1930-1933; St. Anton am Arlberg (Tyrol), 1931-1933; Kleve (Germany), 1932-1934 (extensions); and Vienna, Seipel-Dollfuß memorial church (Austria), 1932-1934. (b) Secular buildings: Tyrol: Berghaus H., Kitzbühel, 1930; Upper Austria: Landhaus Eichmann am Attersee, 1927/1928; Kurmittelhaus Bad Ischl, 1927-1931 (with M. Fellerer); from the 1920s, major works in Salzburg such as the Fauststadt in the Felsenreitschule, Salzburg Festival, 1933: alterations to the Festival district (1926-1970). See M. Knofler, C. H. (doctoral thesis, Innsbruck, 1976). After his return to Vienna, Holzmeister designed Landestheater im Linz (1953-1958) and the Neues Festspielhaus in Salzburg (1955-1960).
51. The two-storey building remains atop Çankaya Hill on 436,620 square meters (107.89 acres) of land, with a full view of the city. It is just below the old presidential residence. The whole city could be viewed from its wide deck. The first storey was the official suite and the second was designed to be residential. According to Holzmeister, in the project meeting for the new presidential residence, the basic issue discussed was chiefly about whether it should be built on the site of the old house or next to it on a newly acquired plot of land. When asked for his opinion, Holzmeister replied "that this old house represented a significant part of the history of the New Turkey and thereby clearly won Atatürk's heart." (C. Holzmeister, Autobiography [1999]. http://www.museumonline.at/1999/schools/classic/istanbul/holzmbioe.htm)
52. Holzmeister was commissioned to design many of the institutional buildings in Ankara prior to actually coming to Turkey as an emigre. He did most of that work from his Vienna office.
53. http://www.archinform.net/arch/2554.htm (accessed June 2, 2005).
54. During his career, Holzmeister planned 700 projects in Austria, Italy, Germany, and Turkey. One of the most outstanding was the Salzburg Theater Building.
55. The Chamber of Architects of Turkey. Source: Vehbi Koç ve Ankara Arastirmalari Merkezi (VEKAM). Reprinted with permission.
56. She learned about the Taylor system, a scientific approach to understanding the necessity of accurately measuring the time required for each task performed in a given job in order to better organize work and redesign the workplace to increase efficiency. During the 1920s, Taylorism was transforming the industrial workplace in the United States. According to architectural writer Billie Ann Lopez, around 1922, Schütte-Lihotzky "read an essay called;How Can Appropriate Housing Construction Reduce the Work of Housewives' in the Breslau journal The Silesian Home. Schütte-Lihotzky immediately understood that by connecting design to function in the kitchen, there would be a positive impact for the working woman, providing her with more time for her family and for herself." (Lopez, Billie Ann. "Mother of the Modern Built-in Kitchen: Margarete (Grete) Schütte-Lihotzky." http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/margaretesl.html [accessed May 27, 2007]).
57. J. S. Curl, A Dictionary of Architecture (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press), 857
58. In Hufeisen alone, there are more than one thousand two- to four-bedroom flats equally divided between three-story row houses and three-story point-access slabs. Not one of the thousand is isolated, enclosed, or denied quick access and egress. Balconies opening to the opposite side dominate the facades sitting in greenery (Lane, 1968).
59. Sean Kisby, Bruno Taut: Architecture and Colour (Cardiff, UK: Welsh School of Architecture Year 3).
60. See Reisman Arnold, Arts in Turkey: How Ancient Became Contemporary (Charleston, SC: BookSurge, 2009).
61. The German Holzman Firm was the contractor.
62. http://maviboncuk.blogspot.com/2004/12/portrait-giulio-mongeri-1915.html .
63. Ken Rose, "American Foundations in Modern Turkey: The Rockefeller and Ford Foundations," in American Foundations in Europe: Grant-Giving Policies, Cultural Diplomacy and Trans-Atlantic Relations, 1920-1980, ed. Giuliana Gemelli and Roy MacLeod (P.I.E.-Peter Lang and Presses Interuniversitaires Europeennes, 2003), 79.
64. For an in-depth discussion of the conception and evolution of Turkey's opera and other dramatic and musical arts, see Reisman Arnold, Post-Ottoman Turkey: Classical Music and Opera (Charleston, SC: BookSurge, 2009). The émigré architects designed many of the still operating buildings used for teaching and for performing. For example, Egli was the architect of Ankara's Musiki Muallim Mektebi (Music Academy, 1927-1929).
65. A 1942 postcard.
66. Beki L. Bahar, Efsaneden Tarihe: Ankara Yahudileri [From mythology to history: Jews of Ankara] (Istanbul, Turkey: Pan Yayincilik, 2003), 88.
67. Cengizkan, Ankara'nýn Ýlk Planý.