Realism's practitioner: Brent Scowcroft and the making of the new world order, 1989-1993

Diplomatic History

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 141-175

  Sparrow, Bartholomew H ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 74049123121     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: 14677709     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2009.00836.x     Document Type: Article

References (210)

1. David J. Rothkopf, Running the World (New York, 2005), 19
2. National Security Act of 1947, Section 101(c), (h)(2). The SWNCC was formed in December 1944 for the purpose of coordinating the positions of the State, War, and Navy Departments on issues in which they had a common stake. From late 1947 until June 1949, the SWNCC was the "State-Army, Navy, Air-Force Coordinating Committee."
3. Rothkopf Running the World, 7.
4. Rothkopf, Running the World, 261.
5. Ivo Daalder and I. M. Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office: Profiles of the National Security Advisers and the Presidents They Served - From JFK to George W. Bush (New York, 2009), 170.
6. Ibid., 180-190, 203.
7. Peter W. Rodman, Presidential Command: Power, Leadership, and the Making of Foreign Policy from Richard Nixon to George W. Bush (New York, 2009), 181-83.
8. Fitzwater, personal correspondence
9. Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York, 1996), 574, 457-58.
10. Jeffrey Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks: What Turned Brent Scowcroft against the Bush Administration," New Yorker, October 31, 2005.
11. Mchael R. Beschloss and Strobe Talbott, At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (Boston, 1993), 471
12. Gearóid Ó Tuathail and Timothy W. Luke, "Present at the (Dis)Integration: Deterritorialization and Reterritorialization in the New Wor(l)d Order,"Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 84, no. 3 (Sepember 1994): 381-98, 385
13. James Schlesinger, "Quest for a Post-Cold War Foreign Policy,"Foreign Affairs 72, no. 1 (1993): 17-28.
14. Winston Lord, "Misguided Mission," Washington Post, December 19, 1989, A23.
15. Andrew J. Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 64-68
16. John B. Judis, "What Foreign Policy? IV: Statecraft and Scowcroft," New Republic, February 24, 1992, 18ff.
17. Bacevitch, American Empire, 57, 76.
18. John Podhoretz, "Beyond Bush 41," New York Post, August 20, 2002, 25.
19. The accumulation of Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests has also made such an assessment more feasible, even if the vast balance of materials on foreign policy and national security from the Bush administration remain classified and still unavailable to researchers. (N.B.: I shall refer to George Herbert Walker Bush as "Bush" or "George Bush" and to his administration as the "Bush administration," unless I am referring to his son, George W. Bush, in which case that will be made clear.)
20. George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York, 1998), 302-492.
21. Bush and Scowcroft's history of their foreign policy in A World Transformed ends with the collapse of the Soviet Union. The book, for all of its valuable overview and helpful detail, omits discussion of the Bush administration's policies vis-à-vis Russia and the other newly independent republics after the fall of the Soviet Union, the post-Gulf War situation in Iraq, the negotiations over and lead up to the North American Free Trade Association, the U.S. intervention in Somalia, the investigations by the U.S. Congress into the preceding Reagan and previous Bush administrations' relations with Iraq, the deteriorating situation in Yugoslavia, and other developments.
22. Rothkopf, Running the World
23. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office
24. Rodman, Presidential Command
25. Derek Chollet and James Goldgeier, America Between the Wars: From 11/9 to 9/11 (New York, 2008)
26. Rick Atkinson, Crusade: The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War (New York, 1994)
27. David Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace (New York, 2001).
28. W. Lance Bennett and David Paletz, eds., Taken by Storm: The Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy in the Gulf War (Chicago, 1994).
29. The account here offers a necessarily limited survey of Scowcroft's actions; much receives no discussion, such as Panama and Latin America, Japan and East Asia, Somalia and northern Africa, South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) and missile defense, global warming and the environment, and the 1992 presidential election campaign.
30. The Army Air Corps (AAC) was established in 1926 and was incorporated within the Army Air Forces in 1941; the AAC was disestablished in 1947.
31. Scowcroft received his third star in 1974; he retired from the Air Force in 1975 when he accepted the position of national security adviser.
32. Interview with Brent Scowcroft, November 18, 2007.
33. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 19
34. Interview with Scowcroft, November 18, 2007.
35. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 27.
36. President Bush also asked Marlin Fitzwater, who had formerly served as President Reagan's press secretary, to stay on as White House press secretary (earlier, Fitzwater had been deputy press secretary to President Reagan and had served as Vice President Bush's press secretary). Fitzwater attended almost all of the president's meetings, albeit as an observer rather than participant (author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008).
37. Author interview with David Demarest, February 29, 2008
38. Rothkopf, Running the World, 261-272.
39. Bobby Ray Inman quoted in Fred Kaplan, "Scowcroft: Problem-solver with a Knack for Compromise," Boston Globe, November 24, 1988, 26.
40. Bush quoted in Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks," 59.
41. Bush quoted in Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks," 55
42. Author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008
43. Author interview with George Bush, December 18, 2008.
44. Gates, From the Shadows, 457.
45. Author interview with Bush, December 18, 2008.
46. Gates, From the Shadows, 457. Scowcroft's habits gave rise to the "Scowcroft award" which President Bush gave to a person who conspicuously fell asleep at meetings and then recovered quickly enough so as to suggest that nothing had ever happened (Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 33-34
47. Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks").
48. Author interviews with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008
49. Bobbie Kilberg, March 9, 2009.
50. Author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008
51. Jake Hansen, "Brent Scowcroft Builds His Power Base," Defense & Foreign Affairs 17, no. 3 (March 1989): 20ff
52. Kenneth T. Walsh, "Bush's Man with the Hawk's Eye View," U.S. News & World Report, October 7, 1991, 28ff
53. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the White House, 172-73.
54. Author interview with Demarest, February 29, 2008
55. Demarest headed the Gulf Working Group. More generally see "Communications (Demarest) (1991) [3]," Sununu Files, OA/ID CF00468, Bush Presidential Library, College Station, Texas.
56. Author interview with Demarest, February 29, 2008.
57. Author interview with Fitzwater, 27, February 2008
58. Hansen, "Brent Scowcroft Builds His Power Base," 20ff
59. Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York, 1992), 302
60. Herbert S. Parmet, George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (New York, 1997), 387.
61. Scowcroft has a condominium in Kennebunk Point, not far from the Bush compound at Walker Point (Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks."
62. Andrew Rosenthal, "War in the Gulf: Washington at Work: Scowcroft and Gates: A Team Rivals Baker," New York Times, February 21, 1991, A14
63. Walsh, "Bush's Man with the Hawk's Eye View"; Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks"; Judis, "What Foreign Policy?"
64. Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks"
65. Rothkopf, Running the World, 262. Scowcroft served as Bush's sole national security adviser through the four-year term. Consider that Reagan had six national security advisers over his eight years in office: Richard Allen (1981-1982), William Clark (1982-1983), Robert McFarlane (1983-1985), John Poindexter (1985-1986), Frank Carlucci (1986-1987), and Colin Powell (1987-1989); Bill Clinton had Anthony Lake (1993-1997) and Sandy Berger (1997-2001) as his national security advisors. It was no accident that President Bush chose to write A World Transformed - his memoirs, in effect - with Brent Scowcroft rather than someone else.
66. "National Security Directive 1," January 30, 1989, Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php. Also see Rodman, Presidential Command, 183
67. Daadler and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 181-82
68. Colin Powell set up what amounted to a Principals Committee in the last year of the Reagan administration, but the committee never convened.
69. Daalder and Destler, as well as others, refer to this group as the "Big Eight." For those counting, however, this was a "gang of nine" - Fitzwater being the ninth man. Scowcroft agreed to remove the press secretary's name from the distribution list since some military leaders had objected to his inclusion at the meetings. Scowcroft and the president, who relied upon and respected Fitzwater, nonetheless wanted Fitzwater at the meetings, and there were no further objections. Since Fitzwater was not on the distribution list and was silent at the meetings, the group is usually referred to as the "Gang of Eight" (author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008
70. Rothkopf, Running the World, 267
71. Rodman, Presidential Command, 181)
72. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 391-95.
73. "Supplement to National Security Directive 1 (Crisis Management)," October 25, 1989
74. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
75. author interview with Fitzwater, February 27. 2008.
76. "National Security Directive - 1," January 30, 1989
77. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
78. author interview with David Demarest, February 29, 2008.
79. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 185-86
80. One the benefits of Gates's enhanced role was that he could travel in the President's cabin on Air Force One rather than in the back with other deputy assistants.
81. "National Security Directive - 10," May 7, 1989
82. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php.
83. "National Security Directive - 1," January 30, 1989
84. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
85. The creation of these interagency groups marked, in part, a return to the arrangements Gen. Colin Powell had set up as national security advisor in the last years of the Reagan administration.
86. Brent Scowcroft, "Deterrence and Strategic Superiority,"Orbis12, no. 2 (1969): 435-54
87. William E. Creer, Major General, USAF, Acting Commandant, The National War College, to General John P. McConnell, USAF Chief of Staff, June 4, 1968, Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft personnel files, U.S. Air Force, Randolph Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas.
88. Author interview Susan Koch, March 6, 2009
89. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 188-90.
90. Rothkopf, Running the World, 267.
91. Fred Chernoff, "Ending the Cold War: The Soviet Retreat and the US Military Buildup,"International Affairs67, no. 1 (January 1991): 111-26
92. Rothkopf, Running the World, 274-276.
93. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed
94. James A. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy (New York, 1995)
95. Rothkopf, Running the World
96. Gates, From the Shadows. Since Scowcroft's roles with respect to the former Soviet Union and Iraq have been covered at length elsewhere, I discuss his action in these two areas only briefly.
97. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed
98. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy
99. Gates, From the Shadows for accounts that emphasize the importance of personal diplomacy and interpersonal relationships.
100. Rothkopf, Running the World, 276-77
101. Rothkopf also writes of a secret task force that began contingency planning for dissolution of the Soviet Union, and that formed in September 1989; the task force was Gates's idea and chaired by NSC staff member Condoleezza Rice (278).
102. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 11-15.
103. National Security Directive - 1, January 30, 1989
104. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
105. "National Security Directive 3," cited in Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 24
106. "National Security Directive 12," March 3, 1989
107. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
108. With the Bush administration's delay in making any decisions on its Soviet policy, observers began to wonder when and how the new administration was going to act.
109. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 160-74; author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008. The tactic to preempt Gorbachev by first stating the U.S. government's points was Baker's idea; the content of the points themselves was largely the work of Scowcroft.
110. Gates, From the Shadows, 484
111. Rothkopf, Running the World, 281-83
112. The Soviet Union, France, and the United Kingdom were all at first opposed to the reunification of East and West Germany. More generally
113. William R. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin: The Cold War Struggle over Germany (New York, 1999)
114. Philip D. Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge, MA, 1995).
115. Rothkopf, Running the World, 284.
116. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 314-19
117. author interview with Scowcroft, November 18, 2006
118. Parmet, George Bush, 449-55
119. Woodward, The Commanders.
120. The United States would increase sanctions against Iraq, permit Saudi Arabia to take delivery on additional F-15s, and consult with the United Nations and NATO, but it was by no means clear from the NSC meeting that Saddam Hussein would have to remove his troops from Kuwait.
121. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 324-25.
122. See, for instance, those cited by Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks."
123. Scowcroft was not the chief White House spokesman, or even the lead spokesperson with respect to foreign policy
124. Baker dealt much more with the media than did Scowcroft, and the press secretary, communications director, and their staffs had the most day-to-day contact with reporters.
125. Walter Kansteiner succeeded Roman Popadiuk as deputy press secretary near the end of the Bush administration, after Popadiuk was appointed U.S. ambassador to Ukraine.
126. Handwritten note, no title and no date (possibly February 6, 1989), "Presidential Interview Rejects - January-June 1989 [3]," Popadiuk files, Bush Presidential Library.
127. Author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008; for "tick-tock,"
128. Marlin Fitzwater, Call the Briefing: Reagan and Bush, Sam and Helen: A Decade with Presidents and the Press (New York, 1995), 282-83.
129. Author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008. But see, for instance, "Interview of National Security Adviser General Brent Scowcroft by ABC Good Morning America," July 5, 1990, Popadiuk Files, OA/ID CF01364, Bush Presidential Library; "Interview of General Scowcroft by Frank Cesno of CNN," July 6, 1990, Popadiuk Files, OA/ID CF01364, Bush Presidential Library. Scowcroft gave a number of TV interviews as national security adviser, although the number paled to those of background briefings and press appearances by Baker.
130. Author interview with Deb Gullet, February 20, 2009
131. Author interview with Bobbie Kilberg, March 9, 2009.
132. Author interview with Kilberg, March 9, 2009.
133. Author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008.
134. Ibid., http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
135. Both statements, needless to add, caused considerable trouble for the administration and demanded repair work (Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 336-37
136. Fitzwater, Call the Briefing, 231-36.
137. One portion of the text of Scowcroft's toast reads as follows: "Speaking as a friend, I would not be honest if I did not acknowledge that we have profound areas of disagreement - on the events at Tiananmen, on the sweeping changes in Eastern Europe," "Toast by the Honorable Brent Scowcroft," Beijing, December 9, 1989, CH01245, Digital National Security Archive, George Washington University, Washington, DC
138. Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks."
139. "National Security Review 24," March 28, 1989
140. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
141. The results of the thorough reevaluation of the U.S. government broadcasting are stated in "National Security Directive 51," October 17, 1990
142. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php.
143. Brent Scowcroft interview with Timothy Naftali, Director, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, "HBO History Maker Series: Brent Scowcroft," October 3, 2007. For more on how the administration learned about and responded to the coup attempt
144. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 518-36
145. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 422-441
146. Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 514-23.
147. Jack F. Matlock points out that the administration could have unequivocally refused to recognize the coup and threatened to deal with Russia (and Yeltsin) and the other Soviet republics directly, rather than with an illegitimate Soviet government (Autopsy on an Empire (New York, 1995), 587-91).
148. Author interview with Scowcroft, November 18, 2007. Also recall Bacevich's quote of Scowcroft's comments to the press about business and the Soviet Union, cited above, p. 143.
149. "Interview of National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by Harry Smith of CBS 'This Morning,' " July 14, 1989
150. "President's Trip to Poland, Hungary, Paris Economic Summit + the Netherlands (7/89) [3 of 4]," OA/ID CF00867, Roman Popadiuk files, Bush Presidential Library.
151. Author interview with Warren "Bill" Gulley, February 11, 2009; author interview with Jack Brennan, February 24, 2009; personal correspondence with Brennan, February 26, 2009.
152. Author interview with Doug Paal, March 5, 2009.
153. On U.S.-China relations during the Bush administration, including reports of Scowcroft's and Eagleburger's secret visits
154. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed
155. Baker, Politics of Diplomacy
156. Rothkopf, Running the World
157. Woodward, The Commanders
158. Parmet, George Bush. Also see Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in Chinese Diplomacy (New York, 2005)
159. David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000 (Berkeley, CA, 2001)
160. Patrick Tyler, A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China: An Investigative History (New York, 1999).
161. Memorandum from Brent Scowcroft to President Bush, re The Pelosi bill, n.d., "China - Pelosi 1989," OA/ID CF00317, Doug Paal files, Bush Presidential Library; "Memorandum for the President from Brent Scowcroft" [enclosures dates 12/19/90], "China - U.S. January-February 1990 [1]," OA/ID F00316, Doug Paal files, Bush Presidential Library. Paal, the NSC staff member for China policy, also debated Sen. George Mitchell, an outspoken critic of the administration's China policy, in USA Today (Douglas H. Paal, "President's China Policy Is Right," USA Today, May 30, 1990, 10A, in "Memorandum for Governor Sununu," May 30, 1990, "Communication (Demarest) (1990) [1]: Editorial Responses," OA/ID F00155, John Sununu files, Bush Presidential Library).
162. Letter from Brent Scowcroft to Rep. Steven J. Solarz, October 4, 1989, "China - U.S., October-December 1989 [8]," Doug Paal, 1989-1990 China File, OA/ID F00316, Bush Presidential Library; "Memorandum for Governor Sununu," May 24,1990, "China - MFN (1990)," OA/ID CF0015, John Sununu files, Bush Presidential Library; "U.S.-China Trade Relations," n.d., "China - U.S. January-February 1990 [2]," OA/ID CF00316, Doug Paal 1989-1990 China File, Bush Presidential Library; "Points to be Made for Meeting with Amnesty International," n.d., "China-U.S. January-February 1990 [4]," OA/ID CF00316, Doug Paal Files, Bush Presidential Library. Also see letter from Kent Weideman, Director, Office of Chinese and Mongolian Affairs, U.S. Department of State, to the Rev. James Dees, Presiding Bishop, Anglican Orthodox Church, Statesville, North Carolina, January 12, 1990, CH01265, Digital National Security Archive, George Washington University. By Amnesty International's count, there had been thirteen hundred deaths in total, three hundred of them occurring in the days and weeks after June 4.
163. "The President's Initiatives During the Malta Meeting, December 2-3, 1989," December 4, 1989, "Malta Meeting December 2-3, 1989," OA/ID 01108, Virginia Lampley Files, Bush Presidential Library.
164. "National Security Directive 35," January 24, 1990, Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php.
165. See "Working Papers - June Summit [Bush-Yeltsin] [1]," OA/ID CF01408-007, Burns, R. Nicholas, and Hewitt, Ed Subject File, Bush Presidential Library; "A Charter for an American-Russian Partnership and Friendship," June 10, 1992, "Working Papers - June Summit [Bush-Yeltsin] [1]," OA/ID CF01408-007, Burns, R. Nicholas, and Hewitt, Ed Subject File, Bush Presidential Library.
166. See "Summary of Current Initiatives for the 1992 Freedom Support Act," Office of Public Liaison, n.d., "Freedom Support Bill [2]," OA/ID 01108, Virginia Lampley files, Bush Presidential Library.
167. "Letter on Freedom Support Act for Signatures of Former Presidents," "Freedom Support Bill [2]," OA/ID 01108, Lampley files, Bush Presidential Library.
168. Weislaw Michalak and Richard Gibb, "Trading Blocs and Multilateralism in the World Economy,"Annals of the Association of American Geographers87, no. 2 (June 1997): 264-79
169. Jessie P. Poon, "The Cosmopolitanization of Trade Regions: Global Trends and Implications, 1965-1990,"Economic Geography73, no. 4 (1997): 390-404
170. Saul B. Cohen, "Presidential Address: Global Geopolitical Change in the Post-Cold War Era,"Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 4 (December 1991), 551-80.
171. "Meeting on Uruguay Round and NAFTA," June 19, 1991, "Uruguay Round 1991," CF00473, Issue Files, Sununu File, Bush Presidential Library.
172. "Key Points in NAFTA Negotiations to Date," n.d., "NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), [3 of 3]," OA/ID CF01771, Walter Kansteiner files, Bush Presidential Library; "Memorandum for Brent Scowcroft," from William E. Primosch, "Options for Signing NAFTA," November 18, 1992, FOIA 16977, Bush Presidential Library.
173. Author interview with Kilberg, March 9, 2009.
174. This is not to say that Scowcroft is only or exclusively a realist (author interview with Scowcroft, November 18, 2006); Scowcroft interview with Timothy Naftali, Director, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, "HBO History Maker Series: Brent Scowcroft," October 3, 2007) - a larger topic to be taken up elsewhere.
175. Matlock, Autopsy on an Empire. One well-publicized incident bearing on the Bush administration's support for Gorbachev and the former Soviet Union was the "Chicken Kiev" speech of August 1, 1991. The phrase was that of The New York Times's William Safire, who used the term in a column published on August 29, 1991. Accounts differ, however, as to who was responsible for the exact phrase ("suicidal nationalism"), although Safire and others interpreted the phrase to mean that the United States opposed Ukrainian independence (Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 515-16
176. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 416-418; Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks"; author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008). Safire took the phrase out of context, however. President Bush spoke of "suicidal nationalism based upon ethnic hatred" (emphasis added), a point underscored by the fighting and atrocities in the former Yugoslavia, Chechnya, and elsewhere.
177. Woodward, The Commanders, 237
178. Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks."
179. Paul Nitze quoted in Judis, "What Foreign Policy?"
180. author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008.
181. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 488-491
182. Rothkopf, Running the World, 299-300
183. author interview with Scowcroft, November 18, 2007
184. author interview with Fitzwater, February 27, 2008
185. author interview with Bush, December 18, 2008.
186. Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks," 62.
187. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 275-76.
188. The president was in many ways his own secretary of state for China, and Secretary of State Baker stayed away from U.S.-China relations for some time after Tiananmen Square.
189. Author interview with Paal, March 5, 2009
190. Qian, Ten Episodes in Chinese Diplomacy, 135-36.
191. Author interview with Paal, March 5, 2009.
192. Scowcroft interview with Naftali, "HBO History Maker Series: Brent Scowcroft," October 3, 2007.
193. Goldberg, "Breaking Ranks," 67.
194. Scowcroft interview with Naftali, "HBO History Maker Series: Brent Scowcroft," October 3, 2007.
195. Gorbachev in fact came very close to using military forces to stay in power and keep the Soviet Union intact but to his credit, as Ambassador Matlock writes, he did not do so (Matlock, Autopsy on an Empire).
196. Author interview with Paal, March 5, 2009.
197. James Goldgeier and Michael McFaul, Power and Purpose: U.S. Policy toward Russia after the Cold War (Washington, DC, 2003), 50-86
198. Leon V. Sigal, Hang Separately: Cooperative Security between the United States and Russia, 1985-1994 (New York, 2000).
199. "National Security Strategy of the United States," The White House, March 1990, 2
200. Bush Presidential Library, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
201. The fourth priority was "Healthy, cooperative and politically vigorous relations with allies and friendly nations"
202. Ibid., 3, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/nsr.php
203. Aspin chaired the House Armed Services Committee at the time; he served as U.S. secretary of defense from 1993 to 1994.
204. Rep. Les Aspin, Chairman, House Armed Services Committee, "The Bush Quick Fix Foreign Policy: Winning The War But Forgetting The Peace," paper presented to the Center for National Policy, Washington, DC, December 19, 1991, "CIS [4 folders]" OA/ID CF 01343, Daniel Poneman Files, Bush Presidential Library.
205. The phrase "new world order" was originally used by Gorbachev in his UN speech of December 1988. Scowcroft then adopted the phrase.
206. President George Bush, "Remarks at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama," April 13, 1991, folder "A New World Order, 1990-1991 [1] [OA/ID 08487]" Speech File, Backup File, Alpha File, 1987-1991, White House Office of Speechwriting, Bush Presidential Library. Also see "Remarks by the President to the Joint Session of Congress," United States Capitol, September 11, 1990, Office of the Press Secretary, "Address to Joint Session of Congress, 9/11/90 [OA 5376] [2]," Speech File, Tony Snow, Bush Presidential Library; "Remarks by the President to the United Nations General Assembly," September 23, 1991, "New World Order [OA/ID 12716]," Press Release, Subject File, White House Office of Management, Bush Presidential Library.
207. David Gergen, "Bye-bye to the New World Order,"U.S. News & World Report 111, no. 2 (July 8, 1991): 21.
208. Gergen is cited in Ó Tuathail and Luke, "Present at the (Dis)Integration: Deterritorialization and Reterritorialization in the New Wor(l)d Order," 383.
209. Henry Kissinger, "False Dreams of a New World Order," Washington Post, February 26, 1991, A21
210. James Schlesinger, "Quest for a Post-Cold War Foreign Policy,"Foreign Affairs 72 no. 1 (1993): 17-28.