Killings of police in U.S. cities since 1980: An examination of environmental and political explanations

Homicide Studies

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 3-23

  Kent, Stephanie L ^a  

^a CLEVELAND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Homicide; Police; Racial threat; Social control

Indexed keywords

EID: 74049110459     PISSN: 10887679     EISSN: 15526720     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1088767909353258     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. Bailey, W.C., & Peterson, R.D. (1994). Murder, capital punishment, and deterrence: A review of the evidence and an examination of police killings. Journal of Social Issues, 50(2), 53-74.
2. Bayley, D. (1985). Patterns of Policing. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
3. Blalock, H. (1967). Toward a theory of minority group relations. New York: Capricorn Books.
4. Bobo, L., & Gilliam, F.D. (1990). Race, sociopolitical participation, and Black empowerment. American Political Science Review, 84, 377-393.
5. Boswell, T., & Dixon, W. (1990). Dependency and rebellion: A cross-national analysis. American Sociological Review, 55, 540-559.
6. Cameron, A.C., & Trivedi, P.K. (1986). Econometric models based on count data: Comparisons and applications of some estimators and tests. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 1, 29-53.
7. Cardarelli, A.P. (1968). An analysis of police killed by criminal action: 1961-1963. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, 59, 447-453.
8. Chiricos, T.G., & Delone, M.A. (1992). Labor surplus and punishment: A review and assessment of theory and evidence. Social Problems, 39, 421-446.
9. Clark, T.N. (1994). Race and class versus the new political culture. In T. N. Clark (Ed.), Urban innovation (pp. 21-78). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
10. Collins, R. (1975). Conflict sociology. New York: Academic Press.
11. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (various years). Law enforcement officers killed and assaulted. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, ICPSR.
12. Fyfe, J., Greene, J.R., William F. Walsh, W.F., Wilson, O.W., and McLaren, R.C. 1997. Police Administration, 5th ed. McGraw Hill.
13. Garland, D. (1990). Punishment and modern society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
14. Geller, W.A., & Karales, K.J. (1981). Split-second decisions: Shootings of and by Chicago Police. Chicago: Chicago Law Enforcement Study Group.
15. Geller, W.A., & Scott, M.S. (1992). What we know: A practitioner's desk reference on police involved shootings. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
16. Gove, W.R., Sullivan, P., & Wilson, J. (1998, August). How are income inequality, poverty, and race related to the crime rates and the control of crime? Paper presented at the Society for the Study of Social Problems meeting, San Francisco.
17. Jacobs, D., & Carmichael, J.T. (2002). Subordination and violence against state control agents: Testing political explanations for lethal assaults against the police. Social Forces, 80, 1223-1251.
18. Jacobs, D., & Helms, R. (1996). Towards a political model of incarceration. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 323-357.
19. Jacobs, D., & Helms, R. (1997). Testing coercive explanations for order: The determinants of law enforcement strength over time. Social Forces, 75, 1361-1392.
20. Jacobs, D., & O'Brien, R. (1998). The determinants of deadly force: A structural analysis of police violence. American Journal of Sociology, 103, 837-862.
21. Jacobs, D., & Wood, K. (1999). Interracial conflict and interracial homicide: Do political and economic rivalries explain White killings of Blacks and Black killings of Whites? American Journal of Sociology, 105, 157-190.
22. Jenkins, J.C., & Schock, K. (1992). Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict. Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 161-185.
23. Johnston, J., & DiNardo, J. (1997). Econometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
24. Kaminski, R.J. (2004). The murder of police officers. New York: LFB Scholarly.
25. Kaminski, R.J. (2008). Assessing the county-level structural covariates of police homicides. Homicide Studies, 12, 350-380.
26. Kaminski, R.J., & Stucky, T. (2009). Reassessing political explanations of murders of police. Homicide Studies, 13(1), 3-20.
27. Kennedy, P. (2003). A guide to econometrics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
28. Kent, S.L., & Jacobs, D. (2005). Minority threat and police strength from 1980 to 2000: A fixed-effects analysis of nonlinear and interactive effects in large U.S. cities. Criminology, 43, 731-760.
29. Krivo, L., & Peterson, R.D. (1996). Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban crime. Social Forces, 75, 619-648.
30. LaFree, G.D. (1982). Male power and female victimization: Toward a theory of interracial rape. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 311-328.
31. LaFree, G.D., & Drass, K.A. (1997). African-American collective action and crime 1955-91. Social Forces, 75, 835-853.
32. LaFree, G.D., Drass, K.A., & O'Day, P. (1992). Race and crime in postwar America: Determinants of African-American and White rates, 1957-1988. Criminology, 30, 157-185.
33. Lane, R. (1997). Murder in America. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
34. Lester, D. (1978). A study of civilian caused murders of police officers. International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 6, 373-378.
35. Lester, D. (1982). Civilians who kill police officers and police officers who kill civilians: A comparison of American cities. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 10, 384-387.
36. Liska, A.E. (1992). Social threat and social control. Albany: SUNY Press.
37. Loftin, C., Wiersema, B., McDowall, D., & Dobrin, A. (2003). Underreporting of justifiable homicides committed by police officers in the United States, 1976-1998. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1117-1121.
38. Long, J.S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
39. Lott, J.R. (2000). Does a helping hand put others at risk? Affirmative action, police departments, and crime. Economic Inquiry, 38, 239-277.
40. Massey, D.S., & Denton, N.A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
41. Mayhew, B.H., & Levinger, R.L. (1976). Size and the density of interactions in human aggregates. American Sociological Review, 82, 86-110.
42. Meyer, K., Magedanz, T., Dahlin, D., and Chapman, S. 1981. A comparative assessment of assault incidents: Robbery-related, ambush, and general police assaults. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 9, 1-13.
43. Osgood, D.W. (2000). Poisson-based regression analyses of aggregate crime rates. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 21-43.
44. Peterson, R.D., & Bailey, W.C. (1988). Structural influences on the killing of police: A comparison with general homicides. Justice Quarterly, 5, 207-233.
45. Sampson, R.J. (1987). Urban Black violence. American Journal of Sociology, 93, 348-382.
46. Sampson, R.J., & Wilson, W.J. (1995). Toward a theory of race, crime, and urban inequality. In J. Hagan & R. D. Peterson (Eds.), Crime and inequality (pp. 37-54). Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
47. Smith, B.W. (2003). The impact if police officer diversity on police-caused homicides. Policy Studies Journal, 31, 147-162.
48. Sorenson, J.R., Marquart, J.W., & Brock, D.E. (1993). Factors related to killings of felons by police officers: A test of the community violence hypotheses. Justice Quarterly, 10, 417-440.
49. Stucky, T.D. (2005). Local politics and police strength. Justice Quarterly, 22, 139-169.
50. Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
51. Weber, M. (1968). Economy and society (G. Roth & C. Wittich, Eds.; E. Fischoff et al., Trans.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
52. Weisburd, D., Mastrofski, S.D., McNally, A.M., Greenspan, R., & Willis, J.J. (2001). Compstat and organizational change: Findings from a national survey. Report submitted to the National Institute of Justice by the Police Foundation, Washington, DC.
53. Weisburd, D., Mastrofski, S.D., Greenspan, R., & Willis, J.J. (2004, April). The growth of CompStat in American Policing [Police Foundation reports]. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.
54. Wilson, S., & Zhao, J. (2008). Determining the correlates of police victimization: An analysis of organizational factors on injurious assaults. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 461-468.